Chapter 22

Multicellular
Body of almost

all fungi is a mycelium,

an interwoven mass of threadlike
filaments called hyphae (singular,
hypha)
Chitin cell walls
Hyphae of most species are divided
into many cells by partitions called
septa (singular, septum); each cell
possesses one or more nuclei
Pores in the septa allow cytoplasm to stream

from one cell to the next

Chapter 22

(c) Hyphal Cells (cutaway)

(a) Mycelium

Cytoplasm

Haploid
Nuclei

Septum

(b) Individual Hyphae

Pore

Chapter 22

Cell Walls

Male

Female

Chapter 22

Three

major types of heterotrophic

nutrition
Saprophyticdigestion of dead organisms
Parasiticdigestion of live organisms
Symbioticmutual benefit of two independent

organisms
Chapter 22

 Asexual

Fragmentation
Asexual spore formation
Haploid mycelium produces haploid asexual spores by
mitosis
Spores germinate and develop into a new mycelium by
mitosis
Results

in the rapid production of

genetically identical clones
Chapter 22

Chapter 22

Typically

occurs under conditions

of environmental change or stress
Neighboring haploid mycelia of different,

but compatible mating types come into

contact with each other
The two different hyphae fuse so that the
nuclei share a common cell
The different haploid nuclei fuse to form
a diploid zygote
Zygote undergoes meiosis to form
haploid sexual spores
Chapter 22

Sporangia

Spores
(haploid)

Zygospore
germinates

Diploid
2n
Haploid
1n

Hyphae of
opposite mating
types fuse to
(b) Photo ofChapter
Sporangia
form zygospore.
22

Hyphae of
opposite mating
types (+ & -) fuse.
Zygospore
germinates
NUCLEI FUSE

MEIOSIS

Haploid
1n
Diploid
2n

Diploid
Zygospore
formed
Chapter 22

Fungi

have been assigned to

four phyla based upon the way
they produce sexual spores
Chytridiomycota (chytrids)
Zygomycota (zygote fungi)
Ascomycota (sac fungi)
Basidiomycota (club fungi)
Chapter 22

Chapter 22

Chytrids

Most are aquatic

Reproduce both asexually and

sexually
Form flagellated spores that require
water for dispersal
Figure on the next slide, illustrates
the chytrid fungus Allomyces in the
midst of sexual reproduction
Chapter 22

Chapter 22

Most

feed on dead aquatic material

Some species are parasites of plants
and animals
One chytrid species is a frog pathogen

believed to be a major cause of the current

worldwide die-off of frogs
Primitive

chytrids are believed to have

given rise to the other groups of
modern fungi
Chapter 22

Most

live in soil or on decaying

plant or animal material
Reproduce both asexually and
sexually
Sexual spores are thick-walled

zygospores

During asexual reproduction:

Haploid spores are produced via mitosis

in black spore cases called sporangia

Spores disperse and germinate to form
new haploid hyphae
Chapter 22

 During

sexual reproduction

Two hyphae of different mating types come

into contact and fuse

Nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygospore, a
tough, resistant structure that can remain
dormant for long periods until conditions are
favorable
Meiosis occurs as the zygospore germinates
Resulting spores disperse and germinate to
form new haploid hyphae that can enter
either the asexual or sexual cycle
Chapter 22

Chapter 22

Chapter 22

Chapter 22

Live

in a variety of marine, freshwater,

and terrestrial habitats
Reproduce both asexually and
sexually
Sexual spores form in saclike asci
During

asexual reproduction

Haploid spores are produced via mitosis at the

tips of specialized hyphae

Spores disperse and germinate to form new
haploid hyphae
Chapter 22

During

sexual reproduction

Two hyphae of different mating

types come into contact and

fuse, resulting in the formation of
a fruiting body

Chapter 22

Chapter 22

Better

known examples
include
Most of the food-spoiling molds
Morels and truffles (edible

delicacies)
Penicillium, the mold that produces
penicillin (the first antibiotic)
Yeasts (single-celled fungi)
Chapter 22

(a) Scarlet Cup Fungus

(b) Morel

Chapter 22

Live

in a variety of marine, freshwater,

and terrestrial habitats
Usually reproduce sexually
Sexual spores form in club-shaped basidia

During

sexual reproduction:

Two hyphae of different mating types come

into contact and fuse, resulting in the formation

of a fruiting body

Chapter 22

Haploid Nuclei

Fusion forms
diploid zygote.
Basidia
on gills

Basidiospores
(haploid)

Diploid
2n
Haploid
1n

Mushroom gills
bear reproductive
basidia. Chapter 22

Basidiospores
(haploid)
Hyphae aggregate
to form mushroom

Basidia
on gills
+ Mating
Strain

Basidiospores germinate
forming hyphae (haploid).

+
Diploid
2n
Haploid
1n

Chapter 22

- Mating
Strain

Hyphae fuse, but

haploid nuclei
remain separate
in binucleate cells

Better

known examples include

Mushrooms (some are edible,
others are poisonous)
Puffballs
Shelf fungi (decomposers of wood)
Stinkhorns
Rusts and smuts (plant parasites)
Yeasts
Chapter 22

(a) Giant Puffball

Chapter 22

(b) Shelf Fungi

fairy ring is a circular pattern of

mushroom growth
Fairy rings form at the leading
edge of an expanding
underground fungal mycelium
The wider the diameter of the ring, the

older the mycelium

Some fairy rings are estimated to be 700
years old
Chapter 22

Chapter 22

symbiosis is a close interaction

between organisms of different
species over an extended period of
time
The fungal member of a symbiotic
relationship may be harmful (a
parasite of plants or animals) or
beneficial (lichens and mycorrhizae)
Chapter 22

Lichens

are symbiotic
associations between fungi
(usually an ascomycete) and
algae or cyanobacteria
Fungus provides photosynthetic

partner with shelter and protection

Photosynthetic partner provides
fungus with food (sugar)
Chapter 22

Algal Layer

Fungal Hyphae
Attachment
Structure

Chapter 22

Grow

on a wide variety of
materials (soils, tree trunks and
branches, rocks, fences, roofs,
and walls)
Are able to survive environmental
extremes (newly formed volcanic
islands, deserts)
Are very diverse in form
Chapter 22

Chapter 22

Mycorrhizae

(singular, mycorrhiza) are

symbiotic associations between fungi
and plant roots
Fungus provides plant with water, minerals, and

organic nutrients it absorbs from the soil

Plant provides fungus with food (sugar)
80%

of plants with roots have

mycorrhizae
Relationship may have helped plants
colonize land
Chapter 22

Mycorrhizae

Chapter 22

Fungi

are Earths undertakers,

feeding on the dead of all kingdoms
Fungal saprophytes (feeding on dead
organisms) release extracellular
substances that digest the tissues of
the dead and liberate carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus compounds,
and minerals that can be reused by
plants
Chapter 22

Fungal

parasites cause the

majority of plant diseases
Ascomycete parasites cause Dutch

elm disease and Chestnut blight

Rusts and smuts are basidiomycete
parasites that cause considerable
damage to grain crops
Chapter 22

Chapter 22

Athletes

foot, jock itch, and ringworm

are caused by fungi that attack the
skin
Valley fever and histoplasmosis are
caused by fungi that attack the lungs
Infection occurs when victim inhales spores
Most

vaginal infections are caused by

the yeast Candida albicans
Chapter 22

Candida sp.

Chapter 22

 Claviceps

purpurea (an ascomycete)

produces several toxins
Infects rye plants and causes ergot disease
Symptoms of ergot poisoning include

vasoconstriction of blood vessels, vomiting,

convulsive twitching, hallucinations, and death

Penicillin
First antibiotic to be discovered
Used to combat bacterial diseases

Chapter 22

Chapter 22

Certain

ascomycete molds impart

flavor to some of the worlds most
famous cheeses
Roquefort
Camembert
Stilton
Gorgonzola

Yeasts

are used in the production of

wine, beer, and bread
Wine is produced when yeasts ferment
fruit sugars; ethyl alcohol is retained,
while CO2 is released
Chapter 22

 Beer

is derived when yeasts ferment

sugars in germinating grains (usually
barley); ethyl alcohol and CO2 are retained
Bread rises when yeasts ferment sugar
that has been added to bread dough; both
ethyl alcohol and CO2 escape during
baking
Some fungi are consumed directly
Mushrooms (a basidiomycete)
Morels (an ascomycete)
Truffles (an ascomycete)
Chapter 22

Chapter 22

The

truffle has evolved an

effective adaptation for dispersal
of its spores
Releases an odor which causes pigs and

other animals to dig it up, scattering

spores to the winds
The

zygomycete Pilobolus has

evolved bulb tops that blast off,
spreading spores
Chapter 22

Chapter 22

Arthrobotrys

cleverly traps
and strangles microscopic
roundworms called
nematodes to obtain
nutrients
Chapter 22

Unfortunate
nematode
Special hypha
with noose
Chapter 22

Chapter 22