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A. Javan and associates developed the first gas laser (HeNe laser), which emitted light in both the infrared (at
1.15mm) and visible (at 632.8 nm) spectral regions..
Following the birth of the ruby and He-Ne lasers, others devices
basic
absorption
processes:
and
stimulated
spontaneous
emission.
emission,
The
three
Before
After
decay is
occurred
when
the
energy
N 2 N 1e
( E2 E1 ) / KT
radiation
is
emitted.
This
is
second=N2A21.
In addition to these spontaneous transitions, there
will induced or stimulated transitions. The total rate to
= ( E2-E1 )/h
h Planck's const.
and
conditions we have
coefficients.
Under
equilibrium
SP
ST
Ab
N 2 A 21
U( )
N 1 B 12 N 2 B 21
A21
U ( )
B N
B21 12 1 1
B21 N 2
N2
e ( E2 E1 ) / KT e h / KT
N1
U( )
A 21
)1)
B 21 12 eh / KT 1
B 21
8h 3
1
U( )
c3
eh / KT 1
)2)
8h 3
A 21
B 21
3
c
(3)
)4 (
N 2 B 21 U( ) B 21 U( )
stimulate emission
stim . emission
c3
U( )
3
spon . emission
8h
c3
8h 3
1
8h 3
c3
e h / KT 1
stim . emission
1
h / KT
spon . emission
e
1
(5)
Amplification in a Medium
Consider an optical medium through which radiation is
passing. Suppose that the medium contains atoms in various
energy levels E1, E2, E3,.let us fitt our attention to two levels
E1& E2 where E2>E1 we have already seen that the rate of
stimulated emission and absorption involving these two levels
are proportional to N2B21&N1B12 respectively. Since B21=B12, the
rate of stimulated downward transitions will exceed that of the
upward transitions when N2>N1,.i.e the population of the upper
state is greater than that of the lower state such a condition is
I I o , e
frequency
that
propagate
through
medium
enjoying
U I
c
I
v
I
L1
I
c
B 21 U N 2 B 21 (I / c)N 2
Now each upward transition subtracts a quantum energy
h from the beam. Similarly, each downward transition
adds the same amount therefore the net time rate of
change of the spectral energy density in the interval is
given by
d
( U ) h(B 21N 2 B12 N1 )U
dt
where (h B NU)= the rate of transition of quantum
energy
I
d I
( ) h(B 21N 2 B12 N1 )
dt c
c
1
dt
dx
then
dI
h N 2 N 1
)B 21I
dx
c
dI
I
dx
dI
dx
I
I I o , e
.x
h N 2 N 1
(
)B12
c
an approximate expression is
max
( N 2 N 1 )B 12
c
Doppler width
This is one of the few causes seriously affecting equally
both emission and absorption lines. Let all the atoms emit
light of the same wavelength. The effective wavelength
observed from those moving towards an observer is
diminished and for those atoms moving away it is increased
in accordance with Dopplers principle.
A\B\
AB A \ B \ vt
thus o t o t\ vt
v
o
v
\
o
\
\ (1
Observer
v
)
o
\ (1
v
)
c
c c
v
(1 )
o
c
where n=c
c c
v
(1 )
o
c
v
o (1 )
c
v
1
o
c
o
v
o
c
c
v
( o )
o
B Bv 2
e
dv
N
where B=
B Bv 2
e
v
m
2KT
T=absolute temp
v v
.then, i. e
I() = const .
at
I( )
N( )
N
c2
B
( o )2
o2
(I
I =)
const =
There for
) max e
c2
B
( o )2
o2
I( o / 2)
e
I max
c2 2
B
o2 4
1
2
, then
c2 2
ln 2 B
2
4
o
2 o 2kT
ln 2
c
m
2 o
K
T
2 ln 2
c
cont . m \
7
7.17 10 o
T
m\
=.015 cm-1
wave number o
N ( )
m
e
2KT
mv x 2
)
2 KT
v x
o (1
vx
)
c
vx
c
( o )
o
)1(
to is given by
m
mc 2 o 2 c
exp[
(
) ]
N
2KT
2KT o
o
where dv x
where
c
d
o
m ( o ) 2 c
e
N
2KT
o
mc 2 / 2KT o
I
m ( o ) 2 c
B 21U v N 2 B 21 ( )
e
N 2
c 2KT
o
The net time rate change of the spectral energy density
is given by in the interval
2
d
m
( U ) h o (I )
e ( o )
(B 21 N 2 B12 N1 )
dt
2KT
o
2
d I
m
e ( o ) ( N 2 N1 )B
h(I )
dt c
2KT
where B21=B12=B
d I
m
( o ) 2
e
( N 2 N1 )B
hI
dx / c c
2KT
dI
m
h
e ( o ) ( N 2 N1 )B dx
I
2KT
I I o , e . x
where
m ( o ) 2
e
( N 2 N1 )hB
2KT
max
m
( N 2 N 1 )hB
2KT
at
max
m
c3
(N 2 N1 )
A 21
3
2KT
8
where
B 21
c3
A 21
3
8
Population Inversion
In order to invert population of atomic levels the atoms must
be excited by depositing energy in the medium using such
method as to decrease the number of atoms at the lower level
NL and to increase the number of atoms at the upper level Nu .
This process is called pumping since the atoms are
redistributed as if pumped from the lower level to the upper
level. The methods of pumping are i) optical pumping, where
the atoms are excited by illumination of light ii) excitation by
electric discharge in the case of gases iii) Injection of carriers
were
eliminated
by
the
action
of
an
population
inversion
is
established
by
N u N L exp( h
K BT
KB Boltzmann const
light or electrons.
Fig. (6(
When the pumping is removed, the excited atoms will
in general gradually return to the state of thermal
equilibrium. This is termed relaxation. If we consider the
atoms individually the relaxation process takes place at
the same time as other atoms are excited.
Lu
where
wu wL
exp
K BT
Lu
wu wL
exp
uL
K BT
(1 (
Fig .( 7 )
This last relation holds generally, even if Nu and NL do
not represent populations in thermal equilibrium .
dN 1
( 12 13 )N1 21N 2 31N 3
dt
(2)
dN 2
12 N 1 ( 21 23 )N 2 32 N 3
dt
(3)
dN 3
( 13 )N1 23N 2 ( 31 32 )N 3
dt
(4)
Lu
e
uL
wu w L
)
KB T
Lu uL
So that ,
12 21
23 32
13 31
, wu - wL>>KBT
N1 21N 2 31N 3 0
21 N 2 32 N 3
N1 ( 32 31 )N 3 0
N1 21N 2 31N 3
(5)
21 N 2 32 N 3
(6)
N1 ( 32 31 )N 3
(7)
N N1 N 2 N 3
(8)
Therefore
21 ( 31 32 ) N 21 ( 31 32 )( N1 N 2 N 3 )
21 ( 31 32 )( N1 N 2 N 3 )
21 ( 31 32 ) N1 21 ( 31 32 ) N 2 21 ( 31 32 ) N 3
(9)
(10)
Therefore
21 ( 31 32 )N
(11)
21 ( 31 32 )N 1 21 ( 31 32 )N 2 21 ( 31 32 )N 3
From equations 5, 6, 7 and 11 we can write
21 ( 31 32 )N 21 ( 31 32 )N 1 32 N 3 ( 31 32 ) 21N 1
21 ( 31 32 )N 1 32 N 1 21N 1
N 1 { 21 ( 31 32 ) ( 21 32 )}
Thus we obtain the steady state solution
21 ( 31 32 )
N1
N
21 ( 31 32 ) ( 21 32 )
(12)
21 N 2 32 N 3
32
32
N 1
N2
N3
(
)
21
21 32 31
32
( N 1 )
N2
21 ( 32 31 )
(13)
From equation 12
N2
32
21 ( 31 32 )
N
21 ( 32 31 ) 21 ( 31 32 ) ( 21 32 )
32
N2
N
21 ( 31 32 ) ( 21 32 )
(14)
32
N2
N 1 21 ( 31 32 ) 21
( 31 32 )
32
(15)
31
21 (1
)
32
31
21 (1
)
32
we have N2>N1
(15\)
Fig. (8)
32 21 ( 31 32 )
N
N
21 ( 31 32 ) ( 21 32 )
32 21 ( 31 32 )
N
N
21 ( 31 32 ) ( 21 32 )
32
1
21 ( 31 32 )
( 21 32 )
1
21 ( 31 32 )
21 ( 31 32 )
put o =
( 21 32 )
21 ( 31 32 ) = ( 21 32 )
32
1
N ( 21 32 ) o
1
o
(16)
N
Let us represent graphically the dependence of
as
N
a function of excitation intensity expressed in terms
of o . Consider the two cases when
)i) 32 = 21. Where 21 is the laser transition
)ii ( 32 = 9 21
2 o
N
10
15
-1
4/11
13/32
0
.
9
10/9
19
24
-1
0.52
0.71
0.81
0.82
Fig. (9(
energy higher than KBT above the ground level , the number
of thermally excited atoms in the lower laser level 1 is so small
that the population can be easily inverted by pumping a
relatively small number of atoms into the upper level 2. The
dN 1
o1 N o 10 N 1 21N 2 31N 3
dt
dN 2
2 N 2 32 N 3
dt
dN 3
N o 3 N 3
dt
dN dN o dN 1 dN 2 dN 3
dt dt dt dt dt
(17)
Since N=No+N1+N2+N3
Laser Emission
where 2 = 20 + 21
&
3 = 3o + 31 +
32
- 2N2 + 32N3 = 0
No - 3N3 = 0
Therefore,
N3
No
3
(18)
32
32
N2
N3
N o
2
2 3
(19)
21 32
31
1
N1
( o1
)N o
1o
2 3
3
01 21 32 2 31
N1 (
)N o
1o
1o 2 3
from equation 19, 20 N2 is > N1
when
32
N o
2 3
o1 21 32 2 31
N o
1o 2 3
1o
32 21 32 2 31 o1
1o 2 3 1o
2 3
(20)
32 1o 21 32 2 31 o1
1o 2 3
1o
o1 2 3
32 1o 21 32 2 31
(21)
w
01 10 exp
K T
31 3 30 31 32
21 2 21 20
&
o1 2 3
e
1o 32
K
T
B
31 3o
2 1
32
(22)
w
exp
K T
instead of 31
21 2o
instead of
21 & 31 3o
K
T
B
, which is
Laser Operation
(1) Essential Elements of Laser
The laser device consists of basically of three elements;
External source (pump), Amplifying medium and optical
cavity (resonator (
In
some
lasers,
the
free
electrons
A*+B A+B*
2- Laser medium
The amplifying medium or laser medium is an important
part of the laser device. Many laser are named after the type
of laser medium used (e.g. He-Ne, CO2 and Nd:YAG). This
laser medium may be gas, liquid, or solid, determines the
wavelength of the laser radiation.
In some lasers the amplifying medium consists of two
parts, the laser host medium and the laser atoms. For
example, in Nd: YAG laser, the host medium is a crystal of
yttrium Aluminum Garnet (or YAG), whereas the laser atoms
are the Neodymium ions.
The most important requirement of the amplifying medium
is its ability to support a population inversion between two
3-The Resonator
The resonator is an optical feed back device that
directs photons back and forth through the laser
II Laser operation
In this section, we discuss how do the laser elements
(pump, medium and resonator) work?
Consider the following figures;
Step (1)
An energy from an appropriate pump is coupled
several
excited
states
E 3.
Then
the
atoms
Step (2)
The level E2 labeled as the upper laser level ,has a
long lifetime. Whereas most excited levels in atom decay
with lifetime of order 10-8 sec. Level E2 is metastable,
with a typical lifetime of order of 10-3 sec. So that the
atoms being to pile up at this metastable level (E2),
which functions as a bottleneck. N2 grows to a large
value, because level E2 decays slowly to level E1 which
Step (3)
When the population inversion has been established, a
photon of resonant energy (h=E2-E1) passes by one of
the N2 atoms, stimulated emission can be occurred.
Then, laser amplification begins. Note carefully that a
photon of resonant energy (E2-E1) can also stimulate
absorption from E1 to E2. Then the light amplification
occurs and there is a steady increase in the incident
resonant photon population and lasing continues.
Step )4)
One of the inverted N2 atoms, which dropped to level E1
during the stimulated emission process, now decays
rapidly to the ground state Eo. If the pump is still
operating the atoms is ready to repeat the cycle, there by
insuring a steady population inversion and constant laser
beam output.
the laser cavity and are lost. Since the remainder (seed
photons) are directed along the optical axis of the
laser.
energy
levels.
(b)
Spectral
content
of
2o
where V0C.
filtering,
can
approach
the
degree
of
before lasing being. The sharp peak is the line shape of laser
light between levels E2 and E1 after lasing beings.
Center
Wavelength
0 ( A0 )
FWHM
Linewidth
0 ( A0 )
FWHM
linewidth
(HZ)
Ordinary discharge
lamp
5896
9X1010
6438
Helium-neon laser
6328
0.013 9.4X108
10-7
7.5X103
Spatial coherence
Temporal coherence
of
corks
disconnected motions.
continued
their
jumbled,
atoms
that
give
rise
to
light.
emission,
each
photon
added
to
the
emission
lacks
both
temporal
and
spatial
Figure 5. external and internal laser beam for a given cavity. Diffraction
or beam spread, measured by the beam divergence angle , appears
to be caused by an effective aperture of diameter D, located at the
beam waist.
The nature of the beam inside the laser cavity and its
characteristics outside the cavity are determined by solving
the rather complicated problem of eectromagnetic waves in
an open cavity. Although the details of this analysis beyond
the scope of this discussion, several results are worth
examining. It turns out that the beam- spread angel is
giving by the relationship
1.27
D
(1)
2.44
(2)
where
is
the
wavelength
of
the
collimated.
With the help of Eq. (1), one can now develop a feel
for
the
low
beam
spread,
or
high
degree
of
1
.
6
10
radian
10
sr
4
D
(5 10 m)
the
consequence
generate
highly
directional,
quasi-
Laser Source Intensity. It has been that a 1-mW HeNe laser is hundreds of times brighter than the sun.
As difficult as this may be to imagine, calculations for
luminance or visual brightness of a typical laser,
compared to the sun, substantiate these claims. To
1
1
thermal photons / s 2 h / KT
A 109 photon / sec
e
1
(3)
We see also from figure 7 that the He-Ne laser emits 1016
photons/s into a very small solid angle of about
2X10-6sr.
2 10 sr
2 10 sr
9
9
320 photons / s
10
(10 photons / s )
22
2
sr
2
sr
7
6
Types of lasers
Gas Lasers
Gas lasers are the workhorses of the laser industry.
They range from the powerful industrial carbon dioxide
units to the ubiquitous helium-neon lasers of modest
powers. They can be operated continuously or on a
pulsed basis: their output frequencies range from the
ultraviolet to the infrared. Depending on the nature of the
active medium, three types of gas lasers can be
distinguished: atomic, ionic, and molecular.
Atomic Lasers
The principal example of a laser that utilizes a transition
between energy levels of non ionized atoms is the helium-neon
laser. The lasing medium is a mixture of ten parts helium to one
part neon. Only the energy levels of the neon atom are directly
involved in the laser transition: the helium gas is present to
provide an efficient excitation mechanism for the neon atoms.
Most helium-neon lasers are excited by a direct-current (de)
not shown.
quantum
mechanical
The
population
inversion
is
increased
energy
is
given
up
by the
atom
to
its
vibrations.
Molecular lasers
From the standpoint of potential industrial
applications, the carbon dioxide laser unquestionably
ranks first. The CO2 laser offers both high power and
high efficiency at an infrared wavelength. Carbon
dioxide lasers have been used to weld metals, cut
ceramics, and perform many other materialsprocessing tasks. The CO2 laser is the most important
example of the class of lasers referred to as molecular
lasers. Thus far in our discussion, the energy levels of
interest for laser transitions have been electronic
energy levels of an atom or an ion. Molecules have a
more complicated structure and have energy levels
that correspond to rotating-or vibrating motions of the
entire molecular structure.
three
different
types
of
vibrational
molecule
can
be
vibrating
in
linear
Chemical Lasers
The lasers studied in this chapter are classified
primarily on the basis of the state of the active medium
(gas, solid, liquid, semiconductor). The term chemical
laser refers not to the state of the lasing medium, but
to the method of creating a population inversion. In the
chemical laser, the excitation is produced by at
(1)
H+CL2HCL+CL +energy
(2)
F+D2DF+D +energy
(3)
and
(4(
Figure (5): Ruby laser using a helical flash lamp for optical pumping
width:
only
certain
frequencies
fulfill
the
resonance
2L 4L
2
2 energy stored
Q
energy dissipated per cycle
This definition of Q is a very general one applies to
circuits, mechanical systems, microwave cavities, and
laser cavities. A typical oscillating circuit, such as one
containing a resistor, capacitor, and inductor, can have a Q
of several hundred; a laser cavity can have a Q as high as
105 or 106.
resonant frequency
linewidth
Each
c
c
c
2
L
2L
q
mode
frequency
(2)
can
be
labeled
with
its
c
q q
2L
(3)
q 1
c
c
q (q 1)
q
2L
2L
or
c
2L
(4)
3 1010 cm / sec
6 10 8 sec 1 600MHz
3 25 cm
(5)
laser
action
can
occur
only
at
those
Figure (1): The combination of the lasing transition lineshape with the
resonant cavity modes gives the resulting output of a laser. Only when
the Q of the cavity is high can lasing occur.
resonance
scans
through
frequency
wavelength-dependent
element,
which
SINGLE-MODE OPERATION
The linewidth of a single laser mode is far smaller than
the broadened transition linewidth: in some cases
smaller than the linewidth due to the natural lifetime of
mode,
the
TEM00
mode,
by
placing
modes.
One
way to
achieve
single
axial-mode
2) Another method for obtaining increased single axialmode output from a TEM00 laser is to introduce large
losses for all but one of the modes. This can be done
by introducing a small fixed-spacing Fabry-Perot
cavity within the laser cavity, as illustrated in fig. 5.
The additional cavity consist of a special piece of
glass, called an etalon, that has two faces ground and
Applications of Laser
I- Laser in Industry
I.1- LASER WELDING
welding
process
becomes
somewhat
more
in
shipbuilding.
heavy industrial
situations
such
as
I.3- Holography
INTRODUCTION
Holography is a technique which, in some respects, is
similar to photography. In conventional photography we
record the two-dimensional irradiance distribution of the
speaking
the
photographic
plate
records
In
parallel
with
the
advances
in
the
optical
Applications of holography
I.3.1- Holographic Interferometry
Holographic
interferometric
interferometry
techniques
is
The
an
extension
unique
of
advantage
the
of
plate
reference beam
is
pattern
produced
by
typical
double-exposure
I.3.1.2-Sandwich holograms
In sandwich holography as shown in Fig. (3), pairs of
photographic plates NF are exposed simultaneously.
N1F1 are exposed to the unstressed object, while N2F2,
N3F3 ... are exposed with the object increasingly
stressed. After all of the plates have been processed, F1
is combined with, for example, N2 in the original plate
holder and illuminated with the original reference beam
cylinder
is
not
new.
In
1870
Tyndall
10 log10 Pi / Pf dB km
L
(1)
Fig 2 the Zig-Zig path of a meridonal light ray down an optical fiber:
this occurs when the angle of incidence at the interface , , is
greater than the angle , c
index than the core, total internal reflection can take place
provided that the angle is greater than the critical angle c
where
c = sin-1(n2/n1)
(2)
sin
n1
o
sin 90
n0
Hence sin = (n1/no)cos
2
1
2 1/ 2
2
The quantity
2
1
2 1/ 2
2
fiber.
Consequently
max
is
known
as
the
fiber
II.1.1-Graded-index fiber
Graded index fiber, as its name suggests, has a variation in
refractive index across its core. This variation is often
expressed in the form
n (r ) n1 1 2(r / a )
1/ 2
n (r ) n1 1 2
1/ 2
ra
ra
(4); it is smallest when is slightly less than 2. Gradedindex fibers have been made with bandwidth-distance
products as high as 2 GHz km. The number of guided
modes within a graded-index fiber with
= 2 is one half of
usually difficult
to
control
accurately.
The
and
GeC l4 + O2GeO2 + 2C12
in
the
range
1200-1600C
with
on
impurity
content.
The
double
crucible
bath
of
itself to
Fig.2 The basis of readout from an optical disk. The read beam
from a laser is focused onto the surface containing the pits.
Particles of dust on the protective layer are not in focus and do
not affect the readout process.
II.2.1- Recording
To a certain extent the recording process depends on
whether the disk is to be replicated in large numbers for
the consumer market or is essentially a one-off for
storage purposes. Most disks, whatever their purpose,
contain information recorded in the form of a height
profile. Because of this, replication of the disk is
relatively simple and therefore inexpensive.
Recording information from, for example, a video tape
into the surface relief pattern is called mastering. In this
process a master disk is produced and this is used to
form stampers, which in turn are used to generate large
numbers of video disks by injection-molding techniques.
Fig. 5 Digital storage. A binary one is represented by a landpit or pit-land transition: the number of zeros is defined by the
path length (either pit or lend) between transitions.
mechanical
means.
As
would
be
expected.
the
are
successfully established
in
surgery
as
themselves.
cutting
tool,
in
In
ophthalmology
detached
retinas
have
been