Network Operating Systems

Network Administration & User

Support -

Objectives

TCP/IP

IP Addressing

Subnetting

Name Resolution

TCP/IP Protocols

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP

The TCP/IP Network Model

The TCP/IP network model closely

resembles the OSI reference model and

is the predominant protocol suite used
in networking today.

The TCP/IP network model contains four

layers, unlike the OSI model, which
contains seven layers.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP

Application Layer

The application layer of the TCP/IP

model defines many of the
applications that are used in
networks.
It determines protocol and data
syntax rules at the application level.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Trivial
File Transfer Protocol (TFTP), Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),
Internet Message Access Protocol
(IMAP), Post Office Protocol version
3 (POP3), Simple Network
Management Protocol (SNMP), and
Telnet.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP

Transport Layer

TCP/IP transport layer defines only

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

It provides reliability and flow

control.

Reliability is achieved through a

sequence of acknowledgements that
guarantee the delivery of each
packet.

Flow control is achieved through

windowing.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP

Transport Layer

Both TCP and UDP use port numbers

to pass data to the upper layers.

Port numbers help define and keep

track of all the different types of
conversations that are taking place
throughout the network.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP

Internet Layer

The Internet layer of the TCP/IP model

defines addressing and path selection.

This is the same function as the network

layer in the OSI model.

Routers use Internet layer protocols to

identify an appropriate path for data
packets as they travel from network to
network.

Protocols defined at this layer are IP,

Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP), Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP), and Reverse Address Resolution
Protocol (RARP).

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP

Internet Layer

The IP provides routers to move data to the desired

destination use addressing that.

ICMP provides control and messaging capabilities, which are

used when there is a problem somewhere in the network.

ICMP is used to send a message back to the host, informing it

that the destination host was unreachable and is also the basis
for the ping and traceroute commands.

ARP is used to find the MAC address of a host, switch, or

router, when given its IP address.

RARP is used when the MAC address of a host is known, but

the IP address is not known.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP
Network Layer

The Network Access layer maps to the

Data Link and Physical layers of the OSI
model.

This layer defines TCP/IP-specific

functions related to the preparation of
data for transmission over the physical
media, including addressing.

It also specifies what types of media can

be used for the data transmission.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

IPv4 Addressing

For any two systems to communicate,

they must be able to identify and locate
each other.

IP addresses are used to locate other

computer systems when data must
travel and be forwarded by other
network hardware.

Each computer in a TCP/IP network must

be given at least one unique identifier, or
address.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

IPv4 Addressing

By using the network identifier, IP can deliver a packet to the destination

network.

Once the packet arrives at a router connected to the destination network, IP

must then locate the particular point where the destination computer is
connected to that network.

When IP addressing first came out, everyone thought that there were plenty
of addresses to cover any need. Theoretically, you could have 4,294,967,296
unique addresses (232). The actual number of available addresses is smaller
(somewhere between 3.2 and 3.3 billion) because of the way that the
addresses are separated into Classes and the need to set aside some of the
addresses for multicasting, testing or other specific uses.

Ref: http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk648/tk361/technologies_tech_note09186a0080094831.shtml

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

IPv4 Addressing

Every IP address has two parts.

One part identifies the network to
which a system is connected
The second part identifies that
particular system on the network

This kind of address is called a

hierarchical address, because it
contains different levels and because
the address can be split into two
parts, with each part being used as an
identifier.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

IPv4 Addressing

Inside a computer, an IP address is

stored as a 32-bit sequence of 1s and 0s.

To make the IP address easier to use, it is

usually written as four decimal numbers,
separated by periods.

Each part of the address is called an

octet because it is made up of eight
binary characters.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

IPv4 Addressing

IP addresses are divided into classes to

define large (Class A), medium (Class B),
and small (Class C) networks (D&E ?).

Knowing the class of an IP address is the

first step in determining which part of
the address identifies the network and
which part identifies the host.

Ref: http://wiki.hill.com/wiki/index.php?title=IP_address

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

Class A Addresses

In a Class A address, the first 8 bits (octet) is the network portion, and the last
three octets are the host portion.

The format is Network.Host.Host.Host, or N.H.H.H.

Only 1-126 is valid for Class A networks because network127.0.0.0 is reserved.

The IP address 127.0.0.1 is known as the "local loopback" address, and is used
to test the NIC of the local system.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

Class B Addresses

A Class B IP address divides the network portion from the host portion
between the second and third octet.
The format is N.N.H.H.
If the first octet in an IP address is greater than 127 but less than 192, it
is a Class B address.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

Class C Addresses

A Class C IP address divides the network portion from the host portion
between the third and fourth octet.
The format is N.N.N.H.
If the first octet of the IP address is greater than 191 but less than 224, it is
a Class C address.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

Class D & E Addresses

Class D and Class E addresses are used for special purposes.

Class D is reserved for a technique called multicast, and Class E addresses
are used for experimental purposes.
Commercial organizations use class A, B, or C addresses to identify
networks and hosts.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

IPv4 Address Crisis

The Internet faced the situation where it

appeared that growth would be limited or
even stopped because the Internet address
space could become exhausted.

In response, Internet engineers developed

a set of techniques to make more efficient
use of the Internet address space.

Among these techniques was subnetting.

Subnetting is the process of splitting a

network portion of an IP address, allowing
an administrator to partition, or divide, a
network.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

IPv4 Address Crisis

Subnetting takes the IP

address, which is divided into
a network portion and a host
portion, and divides it further
by adding a third part, the
subnet number.
The result is an address that
has the form: network
number, subnet number, and
host number.

Ref: http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk365/technologies_tech_note09186a00800a67f5.shtml

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

IPv4 Address Crisis

It is important to know the

difference between private IP
addressing and public IP
addressing.

They are private addresses

because they are only known to
the company administrator and
not known to the public.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

IPv4 Address Crisis

Network Address Translation (NAT) enables

companies to keep their private addresses
secure and not known to the public.
NAT is enabled on a router or a gateway
device, which translates all of the incoming
and outgoing traffic through the known, or
public IP addresses.
The Internal IP address is different and kept
private from the external public address
that is exposed to others through the
Internet.
The public IP addresses are what allow
people within the company to access
networks outside of the LAN.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

IPv6 Address

With the explosion of the Internet and the

increase in home networks and business
networks, the number of available IP addresses is
simply not enough.
The obvious solution is to redesign the address
format to allow for more possible addresses. This
is being developed (IPv6) but will take several
years to implement because it requires
modification of the entire infrastructure of the
Internet.

There is a range for each of the three classes of IP addresses used for networking.
Range 1 is for Class A: 10.0.0.0 through 10.255.255.255
Range 2 is Class B: 172.16.0.0 through 172.31.255.255
Range 3 is Class C: 192.168.0.0 through 192.168.255.255

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

Subnetting

Subnets are similar to the American

telephone numbering system.

It is divided into area codes, which are

divided into exchanges, and further
divided into individual connections.

Subnet addresses specify a network

number, a subnet number, within the
network, and a host number within the
subnet.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

IP Addressing

Subnetting

It is important to know how many

subnet/networks are needed and how
many hosts will be allowed to be on
that network.

With subnetting, the network is not

limited to the standard Class A, B, or C
subnet masks and there is more
flexibility in the network design.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

Name Resolution

Overview of Name Resolution

By their numerical form addresses are difficult to remember and to manage.

This is true when there is a need to change addresses to adapt to changing

network conditions.

Names are easy to work with. The technique that allows names to represent
network addresses is called name resolution.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

Name Resolution

Hostnames and Host Tables

On the network, each computer is given a

unique name to identify it. This name is
used to communicate with a particular
computer.
To reach another computer, the network
needs to use the IP address of that
computer.
Host tables are lists that can be configured
in each computer, associating the names of
the computers in the network with the IP
address host table.
The table includes the IP address and the
name that is mapped to that address.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

Name Resolution

The Domain Name System

Specialized servers within the network

accomplish the work of translating names
into addresses.
The DNS works like directory assistance in
the phone system.
Using the phone system, a person's name
and address may be known, but not their
phone number.
A call to the directory assistance produces
the phone number that matches the name
and address.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

Name Resolution

Name Services and the NOS

In a NOS (Net OS Sys), user

programs can access
network devices and
services by name.

All NOSs use DNS to

translate computer names
into IP addresses.

Ref: http://images.yourdictionary.com/dns

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

Name Resolution

WINS

To resolve or map the NETBIOS names

used by applications into IP addresses,
Microsoft added Windows Internet
Naming Service (WINS) as an extension
to DNS.
WINS automates the process of
translating NETBIOS names into IP
addresses so packets can be properly
delivered to devices or services.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP Protocols

Overview of TCP/IP protocols

A protocol is a set of messages that is

exchanged between systems in a defined
sequence in order to accomplish a specific
networking task.

TCP/IP is a "suite" or collection of different

protocols, each one performing a specialized
task.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP Protocols

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

The first system knows that the second is

located somewhere on the network but
does not know its exact location on the
network.
The source will broadcast an ARP request
to find the MAC address of the intended
destinations MAC address.
The signal sent is a broadcast message
and all the devices in the network will
hear it.
Only the destination device will respond
to the ARP request.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP Protocols

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

ICMP provides a set of error and control

messages to help track and resolve
network problems.
ICMP is used to send a destination
unreachable message when there is an
error somewhere in the network that is
preventing the frame or packet from
being forwarded to the destination
device.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP Protocols

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

It includes a type of message, called an Echo

Request, which can be sent from one host
to another to see if it is reachable on the
network.
If it is reachable, the destination host will
reply with the ICMP Echo Reply message.
The Ping program uses ICMP to send Echo
Request messages and to receive the Echo
Reply messages.
ICMP echo-request is generated by the Ping
command.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP Protocols

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

has the job of guaranteeing that
messages arrive at their destination, or if
they cannot be delivered, informing the
application programs of the failure.
Once a TCP connection is made between
two applications, all the messages flow
from the origin to the destination over
that logical connection.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP Protocols

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides an

"unreliable" service to applications that
can tolerate a loss of some messages but
still function.
Streams of video or audio data fall into this
category.
UDP is:
fast
unreliable
assumes applications will retransmit
on error
often used with diskless workstations

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP Protocols

DHCP Services

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

(DHCP) enables computers on an IP
network to extract their configurations
from a DHCP server.
When a computer on the network needs
an IP address, it sends a request to a DHCP
server.
The DHCP server can then provide the host
computer with all the configuration
information it needs.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP Protocols

Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP)

The Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP)

transfers World Wide Web pages
between web browser client programs
like Netscape Communicator or Internet
Explorer, and web servers where web
pages are stored.
HTTP defines the exact format of the
requests that the browser sends as well
as the format of the replies that the
server returns.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP Protocols

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP is a general-purpose protocol that

can be used to copy all types of files
from one computer to another.
FTP makes use of the TCP reliable
transport services to establish a logical
connection between the systems.
FTP is one of the most heavily used
protocols on the Internet.

Network Operating Systems Network Administration

TCP/IP Protocols

SMTP

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a

protocol for sending e-mail messages
between servers.

The messages can then be retrieved with

an e-mail client using either Post Office
Protocol (POP) or Internet Message
Access Protocol (IMAP).

Network Operating Systems Network Administration