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Conformance quality:
Degree to which the
product or service design
specifications are met
9-3
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Consensus
Gurus had considerable differences
After 30 years get some consensus
Senior level leadership
Customer focus
Work force involvement
Process analysis
Continuous improvement
9-6
Costs of Quality
Appraisal Costs
External Failure
Costs
Costs of
Quality
Internal Failure
Costs
Prevention Costs
9-7
At 20% of sales, represents about $2M sales, at 2.5% about $73M sales
9-8
DPMO
Numberof defects
x1,000,000
Numberof
opportunities
for error per x No. of units
unit
Process Capability
Shows to what extent (probability) parts are produced that meet and fall
outside of specifications
Achieved when process variation (s.d.) is so small that an acceptable
proportion are defects Six-Sigma goal is 3.4 out of one million
Bearing Diameter
9A-9
9A-11
Still an improvement but capability is now measured against closest of LTL and UTL
LTL = lower tolerance limit
9-12
Measure Example
DPMO
200
x1,000,000 1, 000
x200,000
8-13
DMAIC Cycle
GE developed
methodology
Overall focus is to
understand and
achieve what the
customer wants (Juran)
Identifies defects and
variation in processes
as underlying cause of
defects (Deming)
A 6-sigma program
seeks to reduce the
variation in the
processes that lead to
these defects
DMAIC in Action
We are the maker of a
2. Measure
cereal. Consumer Reports
a. How would we measure to
has just published an article
evaluate the extent of the
that shows that we
problem?
frequently have less than 16
b. What are acceptable limits
ounces of cereal in a box.
on this measure?
What should we do?
c. Lets assume that the
government says that we
1. Define
must be within 5 percent
a.
b.
d.
e.
f.
9-17
Lower Tolerance
= 15.2
Process
Mean = 15.875
Std. Dev. = .529
Upper Tolerance
= 16.8
What percentage of boxes are defective (i.e. less than 15.2 oz)?
Z = (x Mean)/Std. Dev. = (15.2 15.875)/.529 = -1.276
NORMSDIST(Z) = NORMSDIST(-1.276) = .100978
DMAIC in Action
3. Analyze - how can we
improve the
capability of our cereal
box filling process?
a. Decrease Variation
b. Center Process
c. Tighten Specifications
DMAIC in Action
5. Statistical Process
Control
a.
b.
c.
d.
e. Tools
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
9-20
9-21
9-22
9-23
9-24
Upper
Control
Limit
Lower
Control
Limit
9A-25
Variation
Assignable variation is caused
by factors that can be clearly
identified and possibly
managed
9A-26
Traditional view is that quality within the LS and US is good and that
the cost of quality outside this range is constant, Taguchi views costs as
increasing as variability increases, so seek to achieve zero defects and
that will truly minimize quality costs.
High
High
Incremental
Cost of
Variability
Incremental
Cost of
Variability
Zero
Zero
Lower Target Upper
Spec
Spec
Spec
Traditional View
Upper and lower specs are also called upper and lower tolerance limits (UTL and LTL)
9A-27
X LTL
UTL - X
C pk = min
or
3
3
As a production process
produces items small
shifts in equipment or
systems can cause
differences in
production
performance from
differing samples.
9A-28
9A-29
Specification or Tolerance
Limits
Upper Spec = 16.8 oz
Lower Spec = 15.2 oz
Observed Weight
Mean = 15.875 oz
Std Dev = .529 oz
X LTL UTL X
C pk Min
;
3
3
15.875 15.2 16.8 15.875
C pk Min
;
3
(.
529
)
3
(.
529
)
C pk Min.4253 ; .5829
C pk .4253
9A-30
9A-31
Variable (Continuous)
9A-32
Control Charts
9A-33
Given:
T o ta l N u m b e r o f D e fe c tiv e s
p =
T o ta l N u m b e r o f O b s e rv a tio n s
sp =
p (1- p)
n
UCL = p + z sp
LCL = p - z sp
9A-34
55
p =
= 0.036
1500
sp =
p (1 - p)
=
n
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
n
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Defectives
4
2
5
3
6
4
3
7
1
2
3
2
2
8
3
.036(1- .036)
= .0188
100
p
0.04
0.02
0.05
0.03
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.07
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.08
0.03
9A-35
Calculate control limits and plot the individual sample proportions, the
average of the proportions, and the control limits .036 3(.0188)
UCL = 0.0924
LCL = -0.0204 (or 0)
0.16
0.14
0.12
UCL
0.1
p 0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
LCL
1
O b servation
10
11
12
13
14
15
9A-36
Example of x-bar and R charts: Steps: Calculate x-bar Chart and Plot Values
UCL
M ea n s
1 0 .8 0 0
1 0 .7 5 0
1 0 .7 0 0
1 0 .6 5 0
1 0 .6 0 0
LCL
1 0 .5 5 0
1
S am p le
10
11
12
13
14
15
9A-37
UCL
0 .4 0 0
0 .3 0 0
0 .2 0 0
0 .1 0 0
LCL
0 .0 0 0
1
8
S a m p le
10
11
12
13
14
15
9A-38
Acceptance Sampling
Purposes
Determine quality level of acquired goods or services
(after the fact) when no sampling of production
process is available
Ensure quality is within predetermined level
Advantages
Economy
Less handling damage
Fewer inspectors
Upgrading of the
inspection job
Applicability to destructive
testing
Entire lot rejection
(motivation for
improvement)
Disadvantages
9A-40
Risk
9A-41
AQL
H0: Lot is good
Ha: Lot is bad
LTPD
Percent defective
10 11 12
The shape
or slope of
the curve is
dependent
on a
particular
combination
of the four
parameters
n = sample size
c = acceptance number (max
defectives allowed before lot
is rejected)
9A-42
9A-43
pqz2 / 2
n=
SE 2
9A-44
Then find the value for c by selecting the value in the QA-12 (on disk)
n(AQL)column that is equal to or just greater than the ratio above.
Exhibit QA-12
c
0
1
2
3
4
LTPD/AQL
44.890
10.946
6.509
4.890
4.057
So, c = 6.
n AQL
0.052
0.355
0.818
1.366
1.970
c
5
6
7
8
9
LTPD/AQL
3.549
3.206
2.957
2.768
2.618
n AQL
2.613
3.286
3.981
4.695
5.426