CAMPBELL

BIOLOGY

TENTH
EDITION

Reece Urry Cain Wasserman Minorsky Jackson

11
Cell
Communication

Lecture Presentation by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 11 Cellular Signaling

Cells must signal to each other and interpret the signals they receive
from other cells and the environment
Signals are ussually chemicals
The same small set of cell signaling mechanisms shows up in diverse
species and processes (conserved strategies)

Definitions
Kinase Enzyme that catalyzes phosphorylation
Ligand A signal molecule
Secondary Messenger Intracellular signals

Local vs Long distance signaling

How do cells detect & respond to signals?

EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
1

CYTOPLASM
Plasma membrane

Reception

Transduction

Response

Receptor

2
Relay molecules

Signaling
molecule

Activation
of cellular
response

Extracellular Receptors

Intercellular receptor

Signal Transduction - Phosphorylation cascade

Cells can respond to signals differently

Signaling
molecule

Receptor

Relay
molecules

Response 1

Cell A: Pathway leads

to a single response.

Activation
or inhibition

Response 2

Response 3

Cell B: Pathway
branches, leading to
two responses.

Response 4

Cell C: Cross-talk
occurs between two
pathways.

Response 5

Cell D: Different
receptor leads to a
different response.

CAMPBELL

BIOLOGY

TENTH
EDITION

Reece Urry Cain Wasserman Minorsky Jackson

12
The Cell Cycle

Lecture Presentation by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Cell Cycle.

Interphase 90% of cell cycle, this is when cell grows

- G1& G2 phases are gap phases
- S phase (synthesis) is when DNA is replicated
Mitotic phase when cell actually divides
-Mitosis division of the nuclear material
-Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm

Figure 12.12-4

Origin of
replication
E. coli cell
1 Chromosome

replication
begins.

2 One copy of the

origin is now at
each end of the
cell.

3 Replication

finishes.

4 Two daughter

cells result.

Two copies
of origin

Origin

Cell wall
Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome

Origin

How do we organize information transfer (DNA)

Eukaryotic chromosomes made of chromatin

Chromatin is complex of DNA and protein
Chromatin condenses during cell division into chromosomes
Number of chromosomes is specific for every species
Somatic cells (nonreproductive cells) 2 sets of chromosomes
Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and eggs) have half as
many chromosomes as somatic cells

Mitosis

Mitosis

Cytokinesis cell splitting

Do cells just randomly move through these stages?

The Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdk)

Cyclins are proteins expressed in G1
They bind to Cdk proteins
Cdk proteins are activated

CAMPBELL

BIOLOGY

TENTH
EDITION

Reece Urry Cain Wasserman Minorsky Jackson

13
Meiosis and
Sexual Life
Cycles
Lecture Presentation by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Reproduction
Living organisms distinguished by reproduction
Heredity transmitting traits from one generation to the next
Variation the differences in appearance between offspring,
parents, and siblings
Genetics The scientific study of heredity and variation.

Genes

The fundamental unit of heredity made of DNA segments

The location of a gene along a chromosome is its locus
The gene for a trait is usually found on the same locus.
Below are sister chromatids (identical chromatids)

Distribution of genes in biology

Somatic cells non-reproductive/DIPLOID
Gametes reproductive cells (sperm and egg)/HAPLOID

Haploid: 1 copy of the chromosome (1n)

Diploid: 2 copies of each chromosome (2n)

Human somatic cells have 23 distinct chromosomes for a total

of 46 (2x23=46)

Terminology for chromosomes

Determining gender

The sex chromosomes, determine the sex of the

Human females have a homologous pair of X chromosomes (XX)
Human males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY)
The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are the autosomes

Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction single individual passes genes to
offspring without fusion of gametes
Clones genetically identical individuals from same parent

Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction two parents give rise to offspring with unique
combinations of genes inherited from both parents.
Genes are passed between generations through gametes
Gametes reproductive cells (haploid)
Fertilization the union of gametes
Zygote a fertilized egg with one set of chromosomes from each gamete

Meiosis I and II making gametes

Introduction of genetic diversity

Crossing over (Recombination)

Independent assortment

CAMPBELL

BIOLOGY

TENTH
EDITION

Reece Urry Cain Wasserman Minorsky Jackson

14
Mendel and the Gene Idea

Lecture Presentation by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Blended Inheritance An old idea

When gametes fuse (fertilization) the traits blend
together and the original traits are lost.

Eventually all members of a species would be exactly the same!

Inheritance would actually work AGAINST speciation (making new species)

What is the character and what is the

trait for each one?

How are traits passed on to their descendents?

Gene The unit of heredity. (carries the information for a
polypeptide or RNA) responsible for a trait(s).
Allele Alternate forms of gene that leads to different traits.

Genetics The study of heredity

Heredity The passing of traits across generations
Character (eye color) vs Traits (blue or brown)

How can alleles be different?!?!?

Gregor Mendel Father of Genetics

Mendel discovered the basic principles of heredity by

breeding garden peas in carefully planned experiments

Experimental design/nomenclature

Mated 2 contrasting, true-breeding varieties -hybridization

True-breeding parents - P generation
Hybrid offspring of P generation - F1 generation
F1 individuals pollinate w/other F1 hybrids - F2 generation

Ovule where the eggs are stored

Pistil Receptacle for pollen
Stamen Where pollen is generated and released

Traits do not blend.

Particulate inheritance Gametes fuse (fertilization) and one trait will manifest
but the other remains intact. Must be physically distinct elements

Dominant/Recessive traits
Mendels Law of Dominance
One allele is dominant and when present will always be manifested.

Homozygous Only one allele (SS or ss)

Heterozygous Two different alleles (Ss or sS)
Phenotype What is expressed
Genotype What is stored in the code

How does a recessive trait ever get unmasked?

Mendels Law of Segregation

During meiosis each gamete
receives one allele

How do you distinguish between

homozygous dominant and heterozygous?

What about multiple traits?

Mendels Law of Independent Assortment

traits sorts independently of one another.

Incomplete dominance

Multiple Alleles

Pleiotropy 1 gene = multiple effects

Gene for white eyes in

Drosophila make flight
muscles defective.

CAMPBELL

BIOLOGY

TENTH
EDITION

Reece Urry Cain Wasserman Minorsky Jackson

16
The Molecular
Basis of
Inheritance
Lecture Adapted from a
Presentation by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

ID genetic material Hershey and Chase

Additional Evidence Chargaffs Rules

1950 - Erwin Chargaff (Chargaffs rules) reported that:
In any species the number of A and T bases are equal
and the number of G and C bases are equal
The total number of bases between species may vary.

Watson and Crick

Models for DNA replication

Messelsson and Stahl test the model

DNA Replication: A Closer Look

The copying of DNA is remarkable in speed and accuracy
~6 billion base pairs in humans (1400 bio textbooks)
Speed is ~50 nucleotides per second
Accuracy is 1 mistake per 10 billion base pairs
More than a dozen enzymes and other proteins participate
in DNA replication

Figure 16.12

(a) Origin of replication in an E. coli cell

Origin of
replication

(b) Origins of replication in a eukaryotic cell

Parental (template)
strand
Daughter
(new) strand
Replication
fork

Bacterial
chromosome
Doublestranded
DNA molecule

Replication
bubble

Origin of
replication
Double-stranded
DNA molecule

Bubble

Eukaryotic chromosome
Parental (template)
strand
Daughter (new)
strand

Replication
fork

Two daughter
DNA molecules

0.25 m

0.5 m

Two daughter DNA molecules

Figure 16.14

New strand Template strand

5
3
Sugar
Phosphate

A
T
Base

OH
3

DNA
polymerase

OH
3

P Pi
Pyrophosphate

Nucleotide

5
2 Pi

Leading strand synthesis

Lagging strand synthesis - discontinuous

Figure 16.17

Overview
Origin of
replication

Leading
strand
Leading strand
template
Single-strand
binding proteins

Leading strand

Helicase
5
3
Parental
DNA

DNA pol III

3 Primer
5
3 Primase
5

DNA pol III

5
4

3
5

Lagging
strand
3

Leading
Lagging
strand
strand
Overall directions
of replication

Lagging
strand
3

Lagging strand
template

DNA pol I
2

DNA ligase
3
1
5

Proofreading and Repairing DNA

DNA polymerases proofread newly made DNA, replacing any
incorrect nucleotides
In mismatch repair of DNA, repair enzymes correct errors in base
pairing
DNA can be damaged by exposure to harmful chemical or physical
agents such as cigarette smoke and X-rays; it can also undergo
spontaneous changes
In nucleotide excision repair, a nuclease cuts out and replaces
damaged stretches of DNA

Replicating the Ends of DNA Molecules

Limitations of DNA polymerase create problems for linear DNA of
eukaryotic chromosomes
The usual replication machinery provides no way to complete the 5 ends,
so repeated rounds of replication produce shorter DNA molecules with
uneven ends
Not a problem for prokaryotes, most of which have circular chromosomes
Eukaryotic chromosomal DNA molecules have special nucleotide
sequences at their ends called telomeres
Telomeres postpone the erosion of genes near the ends of DNA molecules
Shortening of telomeres may be connected to aging
An enzyme called telomerase catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in
germ cells

Chapter 17: From Gene to Protein

The information content of genes is in the specific nucleotide sequence

The DNA inherited by an organism leads to specific traits by dictating

the synthesis of proteins. (ex: enzymes that make flowers purple)

Proteins are the links between genotype and phenotype

Gene expression, the process by which DNA directs protein synthesis,

includes two stages: transcription and translation

Central dogma: information flows from DNA RNA Proteins

Transcription and Translation

DNA
template
strand

A C C A A A C C G A G T
T G G T

T T G G C T C A

TRANSCRIPTION

mRNA

U G G U U U G G C U C A
Codon

TRANSLATION

Protein

Trp
Amino acid

Phe

Gly

Ser

Figure 17.5

Second mRNA base

C
UAU

UUC

UCC

UAC

UGC

UUA

UCA

UAA Stop

UGA Stop A

Phe

First mRNA base (5 end of codon)

Leu

UGU
Tyr

Ser

U
Cys
C

Trp

UUG

UCG

UAG Stop

UGG

CUU

CCU

CAU

CGU

CUC

CCC

CAC

CGC

CGA

Leu

Pro

His

Arg

CUA

CCA

CAA

CUG

CCG

CAG

CGG

AUU

ACU

AAU

AGU

ACC

AAC

AUC

Ile

AUA

ACA
Met or
start

Thr

AAA

Gln

Asn

Ser

AGC
Lys

AGA

C
Arg

ACG

AAG

AGG

GUU

GCU

GAU

GGU

GUC

GCC

GAC

GGC

AUG

UCU

UUU
U

GUA
GUG

Val

GCA
GCG

Ala

GAA
GAG

Asp

Glu

GGA
GGG

Gly

A
G

Third mRNA base (3 end of codon)

Transcription overview
Figure 17.7-3

Promoter

Transcription unit
3
5

5
3

1 Initiation

Start point
RNA polymerase

5
3

Unwound

DNA
2 Elongation
5
3

Rewound
DNA
5
RNA

transcript

3 Termination
5
3

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

RNA
transcript

3
5

Template strand of DNA

3
Direction of

3
5

transcription
(downstream)

5
Completed RNA transcript

3
5

Termination

Bacteria: RNA poly. stops transcription at the terminator and the mRNA
can be translated without further modification

In eukaryotes, RNA poly. transcribes the polyadenylation signal

sequence; the RNA transcript is released 1035 nucleotides past this
polyadenylation sequence. This must get processed.

Splicing EXpressed cOdoN (EXON)

Like the ribosome these small RNAs

have catalytic activity (ribozymes)

Exons, Domains, and Activity.

Different domains on a protein can have different roles.

By swapping domains between proteins you can engineer activity

The Ribosome

Initiation
3 U A C 5
5 A U G 3
Initiator
tRNA

Large
ribosomal
subunit

P site

GTP

Pi
+
GDP
E

mRNA
5
Start codon
mRNA binding site

3
Small
ribosomal
subunit

1 Small ribosomal subunit binds

to mRNA.

Translation initiation complex

2 Large ribosomal subunit
completes the initiation
complex.

Elongation

Amino end
of polypeptide
E

Ribosome ready for

next aminoacyl tRNA

3
mRNA

P A
site site

1 Codon
recognition

GTP
GDP + P i

E
P A

P A
GDP + P i

3 Translocation

2 Peptide bond
formation

GTP

P A

Termination of Translation

Release
factor

Free
polypeptide

5
3

3
5

5
Stop codon
(UAG, UAA, or UGA)

1 Ribosome reaches a
stop codon on mRNA.

3
GTP

2 GDP + 2 P i
2 Release factor
promotes hydrolysis.

3 Ribosomal subunits
and other components
dissociate.

How does a ribosome find the ER?

2

Polypeptide SRP
SRP
synthesis
binds to binds to
begins.
signal
receptor
peptide. protein.

SRP
detaches
and
polypeptide
synthesis
resumes.

Signalcleaving
enzyme cuts
off signal
peptide.

Completed
polypeptide
folds into
final
conformation.

Ribosome
mRNA

Signal
peptide
Signal
peptide
removed

SRP

CYTOSOL

SRP receptor
protein

ER LUMEN
Translocation complex

ER
membrane
Protein

So how do errors in processing lead to mutations?

Substitutions, additions, or deletions of even one base pair can make a big difference

 Silent mutations different codon but same AA is coded

 Missense mutations different codon AND different AA

Nonsense mutations codon switched to STOP codon.

Additions or deletions can result in a frameshift mutation

CAMPBELL

BIOLOGY

TENTH
EDITION

Reece Urry Cain Wasserman Minorsky Jackson

18
Regulation
of Gene
Expression
Lecture Presentation by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Regulating the rate of transcription

Operator regulation of gene expression

A sequence of DNA in promoter (the operator) binds activator or repressor proteins

The DNA containing the promoter, operator, and gene is called an operon.
Tryptophan is a corepressor which binds to a repressor protein.

The trp Operon

The trp Operon

The lac Operon

Alternative splicing

CAMPBELL

BIOLOGY

TENTH
EDITION

Reece Urry Cain Wasserman Minorsky Jackson

19
Viruses

Lecture Presentation by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Virus

Virus - an infectious particle consisting of nucleic acids packaged in a

protein coat (with or without a membrane)

Cannot reproduce or carry out metabolism outside of a host cell

Alive? Not alive?

Genomes

Viral genomes may consist of either

Double- or single-stranded DNA or RNA

A DNA virus or RNA virus

The genome is either a single linear or

circular molecule of the nucleic acid

Viruses have between three and several

thousand genes in their genome

Genomes

Membranes can be derived from host cells

Lytic cycle

1 Attachment

5 Release

2 Entry of phage
DNA and
degradation
of host DNA

Phage assembly

Head

Tail

Tail
fibers

4 Self-assembly

3 Synthesis of viral
genomes and
proteins

Prions

Slow-acting, virtually indestructible infectious

proteins that cause brain diseases in mammals
Scrapie in sheep, mad cow disease, CreutzfeldtJakob disease, Kuru, glaucoma, certain diabeties
all caused by prions