Syntax II & Semantics

Verbs provide the focal point of the clause

Main verb
determines the other clause elements

specifies a meaning relation among them

There are many different kinds of verbs:

lexical v. auxiliary
different semantic classes
Single word v. multi word

Verbs belong to several major overlapping classes, depending on their functions:

MAIN VERBS v. AUXILIARY VERBS

Lexical Verbs v. Primary Verbs

Regular
v.
Irregular

Single word
v.
Multi word

Primary Verbs v. Modal Verbs

MAIN VERBS play a central role in clauses

They usually occur in the middle of the clause
They are the most important element in the clause as they determine the other elements.

The pattern of these other clause elements is called the VALENCY PATTERN

AUXILIARY VERBS occur before a main verb and qualify the meaning of the verb. They
express verb aspect, voice and modality.

Verbs can be grouped into 3 major classes, according to their ability to function as main verbs or
auxiliary verbs:

LEXICAL VERBS

PRIMARY VERBS

MODAL VERBS

function only as main

verbs

can function as bith

auxiliary and main
verbs

function only as
auxiliary verbs

e.g. be, do, have

e.g. can, could, shall,

should, will, would,
may, might, must

e.g. run, eat, think

L.V. are sometimes called full verbs. They are more common than primary verbs or modal verbs

It is an open class (the English language is always adding new LV)

Most of them have REGULAR endings for forming the past and the present tense.
E.g. call | calls | called

However, many of them have IRREGULAR morphology:

E.g. run | ran

eat | ate

Besides, in English grammar lexical verbs often occur as multi word units: e.g. turn or | look at

There are only three: BE, HAVE, DO

They form a separate class because they can be used either as a MAIN VERB or as an AUXILIARY
VERB:
E.g.

Primary verbs main verb function

He does my washing.
His dad was an art professor.
Every atom has a dense nucleus.

Primary verbs auxiliary verb function

He doesnt look at the numbers.
He was wearing a dark ski mask.
A particular combination of results has
occurred.

Modal verbs are used only as auxiliary verbs:

E.g.
People thought he might have been joking.
He would probably like it softer.

Though many verbs have more than one

meaning, its useful to distinguish 7
semantic categories:

Activity Verbs

Verbs of Aspect

Communication
Verbs

Verbs of
Existence or
relationship

Mental Verbs

Verbs of
Occurrence

Causative
Verbs

They usually refer to a volitional activity that is, an action performed intentionally by an agent or doer.
So the subject performs the action by choice.
E.g.: He bought biscuits and condensed milk.

Most typical Verbs:

Bring

Buy

Come

Follow

Take

Get

Give

Go

Leave

Try

Make

Meet

Move

Pay

Use

Play

Put

Run

Show

Work

A.V. can be transitive or intransitive

A.V. sometimes express events that occur without the volition of an agent:

E.g.: During that time continents, oceans and mountain chains have moved horizontally and vertically.

Theyre a special subcategory of activity verbs that involve communication activities, describing speech
and writing:
E.g.: Stop that, he shouted.

The most common communication verbs:

Ask

Call

Claim

Describe

Offer

Say

Speak

Suggest

Talk

Tell

Thanks

Write

They refer to mental states and activities

This verbs do not involve physical action. Some of them convey volition, others do not. Mental verbs express a wide
range of meanings
Mental states or processes think, know

Emotions, attitudes, or desires love, want

Perceptions see, taste

The receiving of communication read, hear

Some mental verbs describe mental activities, which are relatively dynamic in meaning (decide, study, discover) and
others describe a state rather than an action (are more stative in meaning)

Believe

Think

Remember

Mean

Like

Find

Consider

Understand

See

Need

Listen

Hear

Expect

Want

Suppose

Read

Love

know

feel

wonder

Verbs such as allow, cause, force and help, indicate that some person or thing helps to bring about a new
state of affairs. They often occur with a derived noun as the direct object, which reports the action that
was facilitated.
E.g. Still other rules cause the deletion of elements from the structure. (AP)

In other cases, the resulting action or event is expressed in a complement clause following the causative
verb:
E.g. What cause you to be ill?

This law enables the volume of a gas to be calculated.

Common causative verbs:

Allow

Help

Let

Require

Verbs of occurrence report events that occur without an actor. Often the subjects of these verbs are
affected by the event that is described by the verb.
E.g. The lights changed.

Resistant organisms may develop in the alimentary tract

Common verbs:
Become

Change

Develop

Grow

Happen

Occur

Die

These verbs report a state of existence or a logical relationship that exists between entities.
Some of the most common are copular verbs, such as seem and appear:
E.g. Witnesses said he appeared happy and relaxed.

All these uses seem natural and serviceable.

Other verbs in this class report a state of existence or a relationship between entities:
State of existence I go and stay with them

Relationship The exercise will include random stop checks by police.

Appear

Contain

Exist

Include

Indicate

Involve

Live

Look

Represent

Seem

Stand

Stay

They characterize the stage of progress of an event or activity. They usually occur with a complement
clause following the verb.
E.g. She kept running out of the room

He couldnt stop talking about me

Tears started to trickle down his cheeks

Some common aspect verbs are:

begin

continue

keep

start

stop

Many verbs have more than one meaning. In some cases, the verbs meaning covers two or ore semantic
categories simultaneously.

Eg: the verbs HESITATE and PRETEND can convey the physical activity aspects of hesitating and
pretending as well as the mental aspect.
She hesitated and then said Why not.

She can just pretend its her new car.

Also some verbs have different meanings in different contexts (particularly activity verbs):
Eg: raise: a physical activity or an act of communication: raise our hand or raise the subject.

Look: a physical action (look down), to a mental process (look at the offer) or to a state of existence (you look happy)

The main verb in a clause determines the other elements that are required in that clause

The pattern of the clause elements is called the valency pattern for the verb

The patterns are differentiated by the required clause elements that follow the verb within the
clause

All valency patterns include a subject, and can admit an optional adverbial

There are 5 major valency patterns

VERBS

COPULAR

TRANSITIVE

INTRANSITIVE

MONOTRANSITIVE
(S+V+DO)

DITRANSITIVE
(S+V+IO+DO)

COMPLEX TRANSITIVE
(V+DO+COMPLEMENT)

They occur with no obligatory element following the verb.

PATTERN:

subject

verb

More people

came.

They occur with a single direct object.

PATTERN:

subject verb

Direct object

She

a long whippy willow twig

carried

They occur with 2 object phrases: an indirect object and a direct object.

PATTERN:

subject

verb

Indirect object

Direct object

Fred Unsworth

gave

her

a huge vote of confidence

They occur with a direct object (a NP) which is followed by either

A.
An object predicative (a NP or adj.)
B.
An obligatory adverbial

PATTERNS:

subject

verb

Direct object

Object Predicative

People

called

him

Johnny.

PATTERNS:

Obligatory adverbial:
DO+ to inf. Clause: They intended Maria to sing an aria
DO+ bare inf. Clause: They had me repeat the message
DO+
DO+

ing participle clause: I saw him lying on the beach

ed participle clause: I want this watch repaired immediately

subject

verb

Direct object

Obligatory adverbial

He

put

His hand

On the childs shoulder

Copular verbs are followed by

A subject predicative (a noun, adjectivem adverb or prepositional phrase)

An obligatory adverbial

PATTERN:

subject

verb

Subject predicative

Carrie

felt

a little less bold

Subject verb
I

ll keep

Obligatory Adverbial
In touch with you

The monotransitive, ditransitive and complex transitive patterns are TRANSITIVE PATTERNS (they all
require some type of object)
The most common structure for the objects is a NP (but not the only one):
Monotransitive pattern with a complement clause as OD
subject

Direct object

He wasthegoing
Ditransitive He
pattern with a said
Prep P expressing
IO to make a copy
subject

verb

verb

Direct object

Indirect object

thefor
FBI
Ditransitive He
pattern with a gave
NP for theallIOthat
and ainfo
complement to
clause
the OD

subject

verb

Indirect object

Direct object

Staff in the
information office

told

me (NP)

that the train had been delayed

until 18.15

Verbs in all patterns can occur with optional adverbials:

Intransitive with optional adverbial (S+V+(A))

(Then)

subject

verb

Optional adverbial

He

went

To the corner shop

They

fell

In the sea

Transitive with optional adverbial (S+V+O+(A))

subject

verb

Object

Optional adverbial

He

Ate

Nearly all those chips

Tonight

He

left

it

In the bushes

Grammarians sometimes identify a verb as an intransitive verb or a transitive verb. However, most
common verbs allow more than one valency pattern, and some allow a wide range.

Speak and help can occur with intransitive and monotransitive patterns

Intransitive
Monotransitive
Find and
make can occur in the monotransitive
or complex transitive patterns
Simon spoke first.

The stewards all spoke French.

Money helped, too.

Evans did great work when he helped Alan Jones.

Monotransitive

Complex transitive

We might find a body.

You might find these notes useful.

Malcom made no sound.

The sheer intensity of the thing made me nervous.