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ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
L
R1
OBJECTIVES
R2 vO
vS
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-
C
TYPICAL LINEAR
CIRCUIT
EE Subdisciplines
Power
Electromagnetics
Communication/
Signal Processing
Digital
Controls
Solid State
The AM Radio
&
The Telephone System
The AM Radio
Understanding the AM radio requires knowledge
of several EE subdisciplines:
Communications/signal processing (frequency
domain analysis)
Electromagnetics (antennas, high-frequency
circuits)
Power (batteries, power supplies)
Solid state (miniaturization, low-power
electronics)
Transmitter
Receiver
Signal
The radio system can be understood in terms of
its effect on signals.
A signal is a quantity that may vary with time.
Voltage or current in a circuit
Sound (pressure wave traveling through air)
Light or radio waves (electromagnetic energy
traveling through free space)
Frequency
The analysis and design of AM radios (and
communication systems in general) is usually
conducted in the frequency domain using
Fourier analysis.
Fourier analysis allows us to represent signals
as combinations of sinusoids (sines and
cosines).
Frequency
Frequency is the rate at which a signal
oscillates.
High Frequency
Low Frequency
Sound Waves
Sound is a pressure wave in a
transmission medium such as air or water.
We perceive the frequency of the wave as
the pitch of the sound.
A single frequency sound sounds like a
clear whistle.
Noise (static) is sound with many
frequencies.
Fourier Analysis
Mathematical analysis of signals in terms
of frequency
Most commonly encountered signals can
be represented as a Fourier series or a
Fourier transform.
A Fourier series is a weighted sum of
cosines and sines.
Example-Fourier Series
Square wave
4 cos[4k 2]t
k 1 (2k 1)
Five terms
Frequency-Summary
Signals can be represented in terms of
their frequency components.
The AM transmitter and receiver are
analyzed in terms of their effects on the
frequency components signals.
AM Transmitter
Each AM station is allocated a frequency band
of 10kHz in which to transmit its signal.
This frequency band is centered around the
carrier frequency of the station
A station at 610 on your dial transmits at a
carrier frequency of 610kHz
The signal that is broadcast occupies the
frequency range from 605kHz to 615kHz
AM Transmitter
Transmitter input (signal source) is an audio
signal.
Speech, music, advertisements
The input is modulated to the proper carrier
frequency.
Modulated signal is amplified and broadcast
Signal
Source
Modulator
Power
Amplifier
Antenna
Modulator
The modulator converts the frequency of the input signal
from the audio range (0-5kHz) to the carrier frequency of
the station (i.e.. 605kHz-615kHz)
5kHz
frequency
Frequency domain
representation of input
610kHz
frequency
Frequency domain
representation of output
Modulator-Time Domain
Input Signal
Output Signal
Antenna
The antenna converts a current or a voltage
signal to an electromagnetic signal which
is radiated throughout space.
AM Receiver
The AM receiver receives the signal from the
desired AM station as well as signals from other
AM stations, FM and TV stations, cellular
phones, and any other source of
electromagnetic radiation.
The signal at the receiver antenna is the sum of
all of these signals (superposition).
The AM receiver separates the desired signal
from all other received signals using its
frequency characteristics.
AM Receiver
We present a superhetrodyne receiver-this is the
type used in most modern radio and TV
receivers.
The desired signal is first translated to an
Intermediate Frequency (IF).
The desired signal is then recovered by a
demodulator.
Antenna
RF
IF
IF
Amplifier
Mixer
Amplifier
Audio
Envelope
Amplifier
Detector
Speaker
Antenna
The antenna captures electromagnetic energyits output is a small voltage or current.
In the frequency domain, the antenna output is
Undesired Signals
Carrier Frequency
of desired station
Desired Signal
frequency
RF Amplifier
RF stands for radio frequency.
RF Amplifier amplifies small signals from the
antenna to voltage levels appropriate for
transistor circuits.
RF Amplifier also performs a bandpass filter
operation on the signal
Bandpass filter attenuates the frequency
components outside the frequency band
containing the desired station
RF Amplifier-Frequency Domain
Frequencies outside the desired frequency band
are attenuated
Frequency domain representation of the output:
Undesired Signals
Carrier Frequency
of desired station
Desired Signal
frequency
IF Mixer
The IF Mixer shifts its input in the frequency
domain from the carrier frequency to an
intermediate frequency of 455kHz:
Desired Signal
Undesired Signals
455 kHz
frequency
IF Amplifier
The IF amplifier bandpass filters the output of
the IF Mixer, eliminating essentially all of the
undesired signals.
Desired Signal
455 kHz
frequency
Envelope Detector
Computes the envelope of its input signal
Input Signal
Output Signal
Audio Amplifier
Amplifies signal from envelope detector
Provides power to drive the speaker
Systems in EE
In EE, a system is an electrical and/or
mechanical device, a process, or a mathematical
model that relates one or more inputs to one or
more outputs.
In the AM receiver, the input is the antenna
voltage and the output is the sound energy
produced by the speaker.
Inputs
System
Outputs
Input Signal
AM Receiver
Sound
Antenna
RF
IF
IF
Amplifier
Mixer
Amplifier
Power Supply
Speaker
Audio
Envelope
Amplifier
Detector
+
Vin
R
-
Vout
-
Switchboard
Telephone
Mic.
Power
Supply
Speaker
Mic.
Telephone
Speaker
Central Office
Telephone
Earphone
Earphone
Battery
Carbon
Microphone
Telephone
Handset
Central
Office
Carbon
Microphone
Telephone
Handset
Microphone
The microphone consists of loosely packed
carbon granules in a box with a diaphragm on
one side
The electrical resistance of the carbon in the box
is related to the displacement of the diaphragmwhen the carbon granules are compressed, the
resistance is reduced.
Thus, the microphone converts changes in
pressure to changes in resistance.
The microphone is modeled electrically as a
variable resistor.
Speaker
The speaker was made from an
electromagnet and a paramagnetic
diaphragm.
Changes in the current flowing through the
electromagnet result in changes of the
magnetic field strength, which in turn results
in a change of the position of the diaphragm.
Thus, the speaker converts changes in
current to movement of a diaphragm which
produces sound energy.
The speaker is modeled electrically as an
inductor.
Central Office
Switchboard: the switchboard connects two
telephones electrically.
Battery: the battery provides the power
necessary to create an electrical current flowing
in the loop.
A Modern Telephone
Connection
PCM
Encoder
PCM
Decoder
Analog
Switching
Network
Digital
PCM
Decoder
PCM
Encoder
Analog
time
Why Digital?
Transmission over long distances degrades both
analog and digital signals-digital signals can be
cleaned up, allowing repeaters to be used
without any signal distortion.
Can mix many types of information (phone,
video, data, etc.)
Digital hardware is less expensive.
Digital data can be encrypted.
PCM Encoder
A continuous signal is converted into a bit stream:
0000010100000000111111
Sampling
Value of the signal is obtained at equally
spaced points in time:
time
Quantizer
Each sample is quantized to one of a finite
number of values.
Quantizer input/output relationship:
output voltage
input voltage
Encoding
A pattern of bits is assigned to each
possible output level of the quantizer.
n bits can represent 2n quantizer output
levels.
PCM Decoder
PCM decoder is one type of digital-to-analog
(D/A) converter.
0000010100000000111111
Telephone Network
A house or business is called a subscriber.
Typically, phone lines to houses or small
businesses are analog twisted-pair wire
connections.
Subscribers analog lines are connected to a
Regional Terminal (RT) or to a Central Office
(CO).
At the RT or CO, the analog signal is converted
to a digital signal.
Network Architecture
Subscriber
RT
Subscriber
CO
Subscriber
RT
Subscriber
Long-distance
Network