CHE 433 THERMODYNAMICS

Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic,

potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum
constitutes the total energy, E of a system.
Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy.
Macroscopic forms of energy: Those related to motion and the influence
of some external effects such as gravity, magnetism, electricity and
surface tension. E.g. kinetic and potential energies.
Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular structure of
a system and the degree of the molecular activity.
Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.

The macroscopic energy of an object

changes with velocity and elevation.

Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that a system possesses as a

result of its motion relative to some reference frame.

Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy per unit mass

Potential energy, PE: The energy that a system possesses as

a result of its elevation in a gravitational field.
Potential energy

Potential energy per unit mass

Magnetic, electric and surface tension effects are usually ignored.

Total energy of
a system
Energy of a system per
unit mass
Total energy per
unit mass
Closed system remain stationary during a
process and thus no change in PE and KE
(stationary system).
E = U
Control volume involve fluid flow for long
periods of time. It is convenient to express the
energy flow in the rate form by incorporating
the mass flow rate (the amount of mass
flowing through a cross section per unit time).

Mass flow rate

Energy flow rate

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Energy can cross the boundaries

of a closed system in the form of
heat and work.

Heat: Energy that is transferred

between two systems (or a system
and its surroundings) because of a
temperature difference.

Temperature difference is the driving force

for heat transfer. The larger the
temperature difference, the higher is the
rate of heat transfer.
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There are two ways a process can be adiabatic:

- The system is well insulated so that only a
negligible amount of heat can pass through the
boundary
- Both system and surroundings are at the same
temperature (no driving force for heat transfer).

During an adiabatic process, a system

exchanges no heat with its surroundings.

Heat transfer per unit mass

Amount of heat transfer when heat

transfer rate is constant

Amount of heat transfer when heat

transfer rate changes with time
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Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system
boundaries are all associated with work interactions
Formal sign convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are
positive; heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are negative.
Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate direction.

Work done per

unit mass

Power is the
work done per
unit time (kW)

Specifying the directions

of heat and work.

Heat vs. Work

Both are recognized at the boundaries of a

system as they cross the boundaries. That
is, both heat and work are boundary
phenomena.
Systems possess energy, but not heat or
work.
Both are associated with a process, not a
state. Unlike properties, heat or work has
no meaning at a state.
Both are path functions (i.e., their
magnitudes depend on the path followed
during a process as well as the end states).

Properties are point functions have exact

differentials (d ).

Path functions have inexact differentials ( )

Properties are point functions; but

heat and work are path functions
(their magnitudes depend on the
path followed).

There are two requirements for a work interaction between a system

and its surroundings to exist:
there must be a force acting on the boundary.
the boundary must move.
When force is not constant

Work = Force Distance

The work done is proportional to the force

applied (F) and the distance traveled (s).

If there is no movement,
no work is done.
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A force F acting through a

moment arm r generates a
torque T
This force acts through a distance s

Shaft
work
The power transmitted through the shaft is
the shaft work done per unit time

Energy transmission through rotating shafts is

commonly encountered in practice.

Shaft work is proportional to the

torque applied and the number of
revolutions of the shaft.

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Determine the power transmitted through the shaft of a car

when the torque applied is 200 N.m and the shaft rotates at
a rate of 4000 revolutions per minute (rpm).
4000
1min 1kJ

Wsh 2 nT 2
200
N

min

60s 1000 N m
83.8kW

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When a force is applied on a spring, the length

of the spring changes.
Substituting and integrating yield

Elongation
of a spring
under the
influence of
a force.

x1 and x2: the initial and the final

displacements

When the length of the spring changes by

a differential amount dx under the influence of
a force F, the work done is

For linear elastic springs, the displacement x is

proportional to the force applied
k: spring constant (kN/m)

The displacement of a linear

spring doubles when the force
is doubled.
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Determine work required (in kJ) to compress a spring whose

spring constant is 300 kN/m a distance of 3 cm from its
unloaded length.
x22 x12
W Fds kxdx k xdx k
2
2
1
1
1
300 kN m
2

0.03m 02

2
0.135kN m
2

1kJ
0.135kN m
0.135kJ
1kN m
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A = cross sectional area

= normal stress (has pressure units)

dA 2b dx
F 2b s

s surface tension force per unit length

Solid bars
behave as
springs under
the influence
of a force.

Stretching a liquid film with a

movable wire.

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1. The work transfer needed to

raise a body is equal to the
change in the potential energy
of the body.
2. The work transfer needed to
accelerate a body is equal to the
change in the kinetic energy of
the body.
The energy transferred
to a body while being
raised is equal to the
change in its potential
energy.

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Determine the energy required to accelerate an 800 kg car

from rest to 100km/h on a level road.
1
Wa m V22 V12
2
2

1kJ

1
km
1h
1000m
1N

800kg 100

0
309kJ

2
2
h 3600s 1km

1000 N m 1kg m / s

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A damaged 1200 kg car is being towed by a truck. Neglecting

the friction, air drag, and rolling resistance, determine the
extra power required
(a) for constant velocity on a level road
(b) for constant velocity of 50 km/h on a 30o (from horizontal)
uphill road
(c) to accelerate on a level road from stop to 90 km/h in 12 s.

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Power required is the sum of the rates of changes in potential and kinetic energies
Wtotal Wa Wg
(a) zero
(b) Wa 0
z
mgV sin 30o
t
50000m 1kJ kg
1200kg 9.81m s 2
0.5 81.7kW

2
2
3600
s
1000
m
s

Wtotal Wg mg z2 z1 t mg

(c) Wg 0
Wtotal

90000m 2
1kJ kg
1
1
2
2
Wa m V2 V1 t 1200kg

0

2
2
3600s
2
2
1000
m
s

12s 31.3kW

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Electrical work: The generalized force is the voltage (the

electrical potential) and the generalized displacement is the
electrical charge.

Magnetic work: The generalized force is the magnetic field

strength and the generalized displacement is the total
magnetic dipole moment.

Electrical polarization work: The generalized force is the

electric field strength and the generalized displacement is the
polarization of the medium.

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Electrical work
N = electrical charge flow

Electrical power

When potential difference and

current change with time

Electrical power in terms of resistance R,

current I, and potential difference V.
When potential difference
and current remain constant
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The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy principle) provides a

basic to study the relationships among various forms of energy and energy
interactions.
The first law states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a
process; it can only change forms.
The First Law: For all adiabatic processes between two specified states of a closed
system, the net work done is the same regardless of the nature of the closed system
and the details of the process.

Energy
cannot be
created or
destroyed; it
can only
change
forms.

The increase in the energy of a potato in an

oven is equal to the amount of heat
transferred to it.
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The work
(electrical) done
on an adiabatic
system is equal to
the increase in the
energy of the
system.

In the absence of any work

interactions, the energy
change of a system is equal
to the net heat transfer.

The work (shaft)

done on an
adiabatic system
is equal to the
increase in the
energy of the
system.

The energy change of a system

during a process is equal to the net
work and heat transfer between the
system and its surroundings.

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The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system during
a process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and
the total energy leaving the system during that process.

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Energy can exist in numerous forms

such as internal, kinetic, potential,
electric, magnetic and the sum
constitute the total energy of the
system, E. In the absence of electric
and magnetic effects,

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Heat transfer, Q
Work transfer, W
Mass flow, m

In the rate form,

For constant rates,

Energy balance
per unit mass

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Energy balance for a cycle (closed system)

Wnet,out = Wout - Win

Qnet,in = Qin - Qout

The energy content of a control

volume can be changed by mass
flow as well as heat and work
interactions.

For a cycle E = 0,
thus Q = W.

A closed system does not

involve any mass flow, only
heat transfer and work.
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PREPARED BY:
NORASMAH MOHAMMED MANSHOR
FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, UiTM SHAH ALAM.
0192368303/0355436333
norasmah@salam.uitm.edu.my

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