BASIC ELECTRONICS

Fundamental of Solid States

Principles
 Shell
Electron

Nucleus

Basic Structure of Atom

 Silicon

Carbon
2, 4
VALENCE SHELL

• Determine the conductivity of atom

• Contain maximum of 8 electrons
• If one electron - perfect conductor
• If eight electrons (complete valence shell) – insulator

Conductivity decreases with an increase the number of

valence electron.
 SEMICONDUCTOR (Neither conductor nor insulator)

 If valence shell has 4 electrons

 It is neither conductor nor a good insulator
 Commonly used semiconductor material

 Silicon ( Si )
 Germanium (Ge )
 Carbon ( C )

Silicon and Germanium - used in production of solid state components

Carbon – used in production of resistor and potentiometer.
 CHARGE AND CONDUCTION

When no outside force to cause conduction

 electrons = protons
 net-charge = zero

If atom losses one valence electron - therefore atom has

has fewer electron, hence net charge is POSITIVE

If atom in valence shell gains one electron -> atom contains more
electron -> net charge is NEGATIVE
Fundamental Law on Relationship Between Electrons and
Orbital Shell

Electron travel in orbital shell. They cannot orbit the nucleus

in the space that exist between any two orbital shells.
Each orbital shell relates the specific energy. Thus,
all the electrons travelling in a given orbital shell contain the same
relative amount of energy . [ Greater the distance from nucleus ,
the greater the energy level that is associates with a given orbital shell.
Valence electron – having higher energy levels].
For electron to jump from one shell to another, it must absorb enough
energy to make up the difference its initial energy level and that of the
shell to which it is jumping.
If an electron absorb enough energy to jump from one shell to another,
it will eventually given up energy it absorb and return to a lower-energy shell.
Atom Energy Level
 To jump from energy level E3 (0.7 eV) to conduction
band E4 (1.8 eV), the energy required is

1.8 eV – 0.7 eV = 1.1 eV.

Types Energy
Conductors 0.4 eV
Semiconductor 1.1 eV
Insulator 1.8 eV

When electron absorbs enough energy to jump from

valence shell to the conduction band - electrons is said to be
in an excited state. An excited electron will eventually give up
the energy it absorb and return to its original energy level
(in the form of light or heat)
Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonding is the method by atoms complete their

valence shell by ‘sharing’ valence electrons with another
atoms
Basis of Covalent
 Result of Bonding
Si
Atom held together
forming solid substance
Si
Si Atom – electrically stable

Si The complete shell cause

the silicon to act as
insulator
Si
Silicon or Germanium
- form as crystal

Silicon Covalent Bonding

Conduction

Valence electrons absorb enough energy  jump from valence band

to conduction band

As result  a GAP is left in the covalent band (known as ‘hole’)

For every conduction band electrons there must exist a valence band hole.

Conduction band

Valence band

Recombination - when free electron return to holes in covalent bond

Life time – time between generation of electron-hole pair and recombination.
Conduction Versus Temperature

At room temperature

 Thermal energy (heat) cause the constant creation of electron – hole

pairs with their subsequent recombination.

 Therefore a semiconductor always has some number of free

electrons even when no voltage is applied

 Increase temperature -- more electron absorb energy to break

free of their covalent bond (increase free electrons)

 Decrease temperature -- less free electrons

 No free electron at absolute temperature – 273.16 C (0 Kelvin).

 Conductivity in a semiconductor varies directly with temperature.

Doping

Doping is the process of adding impurity atoms to intrinsic (pure)

silicon or germanium to improve conductivity of the semiconductor.

A doped semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor

Two types of doping

 trivalent - element that has 3 free electrons

 pentavalent --- element that has 5 free electrons

When trivalent atom are added to intrinsic semiconductor; the resulting

material is called P-type material.

If pentavalent atom are added to intrinsic semiconductor ; the resulting

material is N-type material.
Trivalent Pentavalent

Al P

Ga As

Boron (B) Antimony (Sb)

Indium (In) Bismuth (Bi)

 Pentavalent impurities
N-type Material
add to

Silicon or Germanium

Si Si
Result in access of
one electron in covalent

Even with extra As bond

electron, the
material still
electrically Si
Si Extra electron can be made
neutral because to flow through the material
atom still have with little difficulty
equal photons as
electrons
Extra covalent bond electron
Energy Diagram – N-type
electron

Energy
Conduction band

hole

Valence band

In N-type material : More electrons in conduction band than holes in

valence band

The electrons are called majority carriers

while valence band holes are called minority carriers
P-type Material
hole
Intrinsic silicon

add to
Si Si
trivalent element

Al
P – type material
Si
Si
Energy Diagram – P-type
electron

Energy
Conduction band

hole

Valence band

In P-type material : Less electrons in conduction band than holes in

valence band

The holes are called majority carriers

while valence band electrons are called minority carriers
END