CGE 461

INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM
TECHNOLOGY
BY:
TENGKU AMRAN TENGKU MOHD

Department of Oil & Gas Engineering

Faculty of Chemical Engineering
UiTM Shah Alam

Fundamental of Petroleum
Geology

Outline

The Nature of Oil & Gas

Identification of Rocks and Minerals

Fundamental of Rocks and Minerals

Geological Time

Deformation of Sedimentary Rocks

Sandstone Reservoir Rocks

Carbonate Reservoir Rocks

Sedimentary Rock Distribution

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be
able to:
Describe the nature of oil and gas
Discuss the main difference between igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks as well
as the circular process.

Describe the main distinguishing features and

occurrence of the major minerals.
Describe the geological time scale as well as
sandstone and carbonate reservoir rocks.

Overview

Gas
Oil
Water

Petroleum Accumulates in Structural Closure

Overview

What is geology???
Geology is of major importance to the petroleum
industry for the following reasons:
- It is necessary to drill through the rock structure of the
earth in order to gain access to the hydrocarbon
reservoir.

Geology is the science that deals with the history and

structure of the earth and its life forms, especially
as recorded in the rock record.

Overview
The physical characteristics of a reservoir, how
petroleum originated and in what type of rock, what types
of fluids exist in the reservoir, how hydrocarbons become
trapped, and basic well log analysis are some of the
concepts vital to the production and recovery efforts of
any exploration or energy service company.
Hydrocarbon is generated in the source

rock.

Hydrocarbon is stored within the rock structure of the

earth.
Hydrocarbons must be produced from the rocks of the
earth.

Nature of Oil and Gas

The term of petroleum was derived from the ancient
Greek words:
Petra = rock
Oleum = oil
The term originally used to differentiate rock-oil from
other oil in 19th Century.
Oil and natural gas are made up of hydrocarbon (HC)
molecules.
HC molecules occur only in living things (plants and
animals)
Methane most common HC molecule

1. Crude Oil
Paraffins or alkane molecule saturated chain HC
(single bonds)
CnH2n+2
Naphthene or cycloparaffin molecule cyclic HC
compounds
CnH2n

1. Crude Oil
Aromatic or benzene molecule closed ring with some
unsaturated (double) bonds
CnH2n-6

Asphaltic molecule 40 to more than 60 C atoms, solid to

semisolid under surface conditions.
Crude oil liquid at surface temperature and pressure.
Soluble in organic solvent
Crude oil made up mainly of paraffin (paraffin-based crude oil)
Asphalt-based crude oil contain little or no paraffin wax.

2. Natural Gas
Mixture of HC (mainly HC gases)

Methane (CH4)
Ethane (C2H6)
Propane (C3H8)
Butane (C4H10)

Cannot be condensed to liquids at surface temperature

and pressure
Dry gas: gas that is mainly methane
Wet gas: gas mixture with > 4-5% ethane
Mineral gas: natural occurrences of non-hydrocarbon gases, i.e.
CO2, He and H2S.

2. Natural Gas

Natural gas liquid condensate & liquefied petroleum

gas (LPG), the wet-gas compounds that can be liquefied
at surface temperature
Methane can also be liquefied under certain conditions
(high pressure, low temperature ~ -160oC) LNG

3. Gas Hydrates

Crystalline solids (water-ice) consisting of gas (usually

methane) molecules each surrounded by a cage of water
molecules
Formed at high pressure and low temperature in the
deep sea (>300m).

4. Oil Sand/Bitumen/Heavy, Extra Heavy Oil

Heavy oil API < 16o API

Not flow on its own at typical reservoir temperatures
tar/asphalt.
In heavy-oil sands: oil coats the grains of the reservoir
rock.
More viscous
Close to the surface

Rocks and Minerals

WHAT ARE THE THREE (3)

TYPES OF ROCKS???

Rocks and Minerals

The earth is made of three rock classes:
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic

1. Igneous Rock
Igneous rock is rock formed from cooling magma, or
molten rock (from the mantle or asthenosphere of
the earth).
Igneous rock at the earths surface usually implies
volcanic activity where magma has been extruded to
the surface in the form of lava.
Upon exposure to the atmosphere, cooling and
solidifying occurs, resulting in the formation of
extrusive igneous rock (volcanic).
The greatest presence of igneous rock in the crust of
the earth, however, is intrusive or plutonic igneous
rock.
Igneous rocks rarely form drilling targets for
petroleum (except fractured granites and lavas)

1. Igneous Rock mode of occurrences

Two major groups;
Extrusive (Volcanic) occurred on the earth surface.
Intrusive (Plutonic) occurred within the earth crust

Extrusive

Intrusive

1. Igneous Rock

The most common intrusive igneous rock is granite.

Figure below graphically represents a microscopic view
of a granite sample.
The significance to the petroleum industry is that most
igneous rock has very little void space (open space
within the rock) so there is no potential storage of
hydrocarbons.
Although there are exceptions, in general, hydrocarbon
reservoirs will not be found in igneous rock.

Graphical Representation Microscopic

View of Sample of Granite

1. Igneous Rock
Igneous rock beneath the surface rock of the
earths crust is referred to as basement rock.
This basement rock is usually granite.
When drillers drill into basement rock, they will
normally cease drilling.

However, when granite is drilled into, it may not

necessarily be the basement rock.
Granite may result from an intrusion of magma
into overlying rocks during volcanic activity.
Essentially vertical veins of igneous intrusions
are called dikes, and essentially horizontal veins
of igneous intrusions are called sills.

1. Igneous Rock

Figure 2.2: Examples of igneous rock

2. Sedimentary Rock

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of

particles, followed by burial, compaction and
cementation of those particles.
Clastic sedimentary rocks - formed by erosion of preexisting rocks, subsequent transport of the resulting
particles by water or air, and their eventual deposition
(e.g. sandstones, mudstones)
Chemical sedimentary rocks - formed by direct
precipitation of minerals from water (e.g. limestones,
dolomites)

Figure 2.3. Graphical Representation

Microscopic View of Sample sandstone

Formation
Sedimentary rocks are formed from overburden
pressure as particles of sediment are deposited out of
air, ice, or water flows carrying the particles in
suspension. As sediment deposition builds up, the
overburden (or 'lithostatic') pressure squeezes the
sediment into layered solids in a process known as
lithification ('rock formation') and the original connate
fluids are expelled.
(The term diagenesis is used to describe all the
chemical, physical, and biological changes, including
cementation, undergone by a sediment after its initial
deposition and during and after its lithification,
exclusive of surface weathering.)
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Formation
Sedimentary rocks contain important
information about the history of the Earth.
They contain fossils (the preserved
remains of ancient plants and animals).
Sedimentary rocks can contain fossils
because, unlike most igneous and
metamorphic rocks, they form at
temperatures and pressures that do not
destroy fossil remnants.
The composition of sediments provides
us with clues as to the original rock.
Differences between successive layers
indicate changes to the environment
which have occurred over time.

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Sedimentary Processes
1

2) & 3)
Sediments are
transported and
deposited

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Formation of Sedimentary Rocks (Processes)

The basic processes involved in the formation of a clastic
sedimentary rocks are: weathering (erosion), transportation,
deposition and compaction (lithification)

Weathering -

Transportation -

mechanical or
chemical break down
of rock

movement of sediment
by gravity, wind, water
(geologic agents)

Sedimentary
rocks
Crystallization - new
minerals grow, or existing
crystals grow larger as time
passes - helps hold rock
together.

Deposition

occurs when
geologic agent can
no longer transport
material

Compaction (lithification) - pressure

of overlying sediments packs grains and
squeezes water from pores
Cementation - pore spaces fill with a
binding agent, typically - calcite, quartz, iron
oxide, precipitated from circulating water.

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Weathering and Erosion

Weathering and erosion are the processes by which
the sediments are broken down and transported.
There are two types of weathering:
i) Physical occurs when solid rock is fragmented
by physical processes that do not change the
rocks chemical composition. These processes
include wind (aeolian forces), water (freezing, flowing,
wave action, etc), heat, and even glacial movement.
Frost wedging is one example of physical weathering.
ii) Chemical occurs when minerals in a rock are
chemically altered or dissolved. The weathering of
potassium feldspar to form kaolinite, a clay, is an
example of chemical weathering.

Weathering and Erosion

Weathering and erosion are closely interrelated
geological processes. As a rock weathers, it
becomes susceptible to erosion. Erosion is the
removal of weathered debris.
These and additional forces and processes have
resulted in the creation of subsurface geological
formations in which petroleum reservoirs are found.
Lithification the process which results in the
formation of solid rock from a loose sediment

2. Sedimentary Rock

Sedimentary rocks form the large majority of

petroleum reservoirs and source rocks.
There is no particular order in the particle
arrangement. However, many sedimentary
rocks have void space.
These open spaces provide for potential
storage of hydrocarbons, which may be
found in sedimentary rocks.

2. Sedimentary Rock

Examples of sedimentary rock

2. Sedimentary Rock
The two main groups of sedimentary rocks are classified
on the basis of their origin:
1) Clastic Sedimentary Rocks - formed as a result of
the weathering or fragmentation of pre-existing rocks
and minerals and classified on the basis of their
textures, primarily the sizes of the grains.

SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS

Coarse-grained

conglomerates

Medium-grained

sandstones

Fine-grained

Siltstones,mudstones
& shales

Detrital sedimentary rocks - classified by grain size

differences

Conglomerate
Breccia

Sandstone
Shale
All these rocks have clastic textures the rocks are composed of
particles (fragments) that are cemented together

2. Sedimentary Rock
The two main groups of sedimentary rocks are classified
on the basis of their origin:
2) Chemical or Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks formed as a result of chemical processes.
Primary carbonate deposition results from the
precipitation and deposits formed by plants and
animals that utilize carbonates in their life processes.
Calcite -The most abundant mineral chemically or
biochemically precipitated in the oceans the main
constituent of limestone.

Chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks

Travertine

Coquina

Limestones composed of calcite

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There are three

Types of rocks

3) Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rock is rock formed from previously existing
rocks by extremes of pressure, temperature, time, and
chemical action.
When conditions leading to lithification are carried to the
extreme, metamorphism occurs. As an example, sand
originally deposited as desert sand may undergo
lithification to form sandstone in geologic time.
Metamorphic rocks are formed by the heating - often
accompanied by deformation- of pre-existing rocks
(igneous or sedimentary) at depth within the earths crust
(e.g. schist, marble, gneiss).
Ultimately metamorphic rocks will be melted and re-cycled
as igneous rocks. Metamorphic rocks are rarely drilling
targets for hydrocarbons.

How Metamorphic Rocks are Formed?

The underlying principle to understanding all things
geological is:
Minerals and rocks are stable only under the
conditions at which they form. Change the
conditions and the rocks will change to adapt to the
new conditions.

Metamorphism occurs when any previously

existing rock, the parent rock, is buried in the earth
under layers of other rock. The deeper the rock is
buried the hotter it gets, and the higher the
pressure becomes. Eventually, rock must adjust to
the new conditions, whether it is baked, or
squeezed, or both, and in the process becomes a
metamorphic rock.

What causes metamorphism?

Heat (temperature)
Pressure
Reaction with fluids

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Recrystallization minerals grow and develop an

interlocking texture

Quartzite
metamorphosed
sandstone

Marble
Metamorphosed
limestone

3) Metamorphic Rocks

Examples of metamorphic rock

3) Metamorphic Rocks

Examples of metamorphic rock

3) Metamorphic Rocks
It is not expected that hydrocarbon will be found in
metamorphic rock.

Graphical Representation of
Microscopic View of Sample of Gneiss

Formation of Rocks

Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks are related by

the rock cycle, the circular process by which each is formed
from the others.

Rock cycle

Summary
Igneous rocks solidify from magma (or molten rock)
Sedimentary rocks form from materials that are eroded
from other rocks
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have changed due to
being heated and/or compressed.

Minerals
Rocks are composed of minerals (Figure) constructed
from the main elements present within the Earths crust .
The difference between a rock and a mineral is:
A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals (e.g.
granite, marble or sandstone) or a body of
undifferentiated mineral matter (e.g. obsidian) or organic
matter (e.g. coal)

Minerals

Minerals
A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic element or
compound having an orderly internal structure and
characteristic chemical composition, crystal form and
physical properties.
The number of different minerals is vast and only those
most commonly occurring in the sedimentary rocks,
considered most relevant to the petroleum engineer, are
considered at this time.

Rocks are
aggregates of
minerals
Minerals
are the
basic
building
blocks
of the
solid
earth

Minerals

Overview

WHAT IS THE GEOLOGICAL

TIME SCALE???

Geological Time Scale

Geologists have classified the earths stratigraphic

record (the geological record) in terms of the key
periods of geological time (Figure).
The Periods are grouped within major Era and are
further subdivided into Epochs and Ages.
The details of the stratigraphy (spatial and temporal
distribution of rock units) at the reservoir scale are
usually defined by lithostratigraphic (rock type)
and/or biostratigraphic (fossil type) correlations.

The Geological Time Scale

Geologic time
scale

Divisions of
geologic time are:
Eons
Eras

Periods
Epochs
The time scale was
developed using
relative dating
techniques on a
world-wide basis
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First mammals (210)

First reptiles (310)

First land plants (470)

First algae (1800)

Oxygenated atmosphere (2400)
Cyanobacteria & stromatolites (3500)

Formation
of planet (4600)
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Another look
at geologic
time

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Relative and Absolute dating

Relative dating: Events and rocks units are
put in sequence relative to one another
Absolute dating: The age of rock units is
determined precisely in years using the rate
of decay of naturally occurring radioactive
elements

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Principles of relative dating

1) Original Horizontality & 2) Superposition

Strata are
deposited
horizontally,
with oldest
strata beneath
younger strata

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Relative dating
3) Cross cutting

Igneous
intrusions,
such as
dikes, sills
and
plutons,
and faults,
are
younger
than the
features
they cut
across

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Relative dating
4) Inclusions
Inclusions are older than the
rocks that contain them.
Xenoliths in intrusive rock are
older than the intrusive rock
Igneous clasts in conglomerate
are older than the conglomerate

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How to correlate strata over large distances?

1) Key beds, 2) Fossils & faunal succession

Each stratum represents a particular environment, with characteristic

plants and/or animals which can be preserved as fossils. Over time,
some living things become extinct and others become common.
Key beds are deposited during short events, like volcanic ash
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eruptions or landslides, and are easily identified

Look at stratigraphy
(rock sequence) of
the Grand Canyon
Permian: 251-300
million years ago

Cambrian: 510543 million years

ago
Precambrian:
older than 543
million years ago

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Index fossils the characteristic fossils found in strata of a

given age

Trilobites index fossils for the

Cambrian Period
Ammonites index fossils for the
Cretaceous Period

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Radiometric dating an absolute dating technique based on radioactive

decay of naturally occurring isotopes in rocks

Certain kinds of atoms (parent

isotopes) are unstable.
Common isotopes are 40-K,
238-U, 87-Rb, 14-C

Beta
emission

Parent atoms decay into

other atoms called daughters,
on a one-to-one basis
During radioactive decay subatomic particles and energy
are emitted (danger!)

Each isotope has its own

known decay constant, which
can be expressed as a half-life
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Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes used for radiometric

dating

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Stratigraphic principles
Uniformitarianism
More or less, this is the idea that processes
which are happening today happened similarly
in the past. So if we observe something going on
today, we might expect it to have been similar
100 million years ago.
The present is the key to the past.

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Superposition principles
Basically, in any undisturbed stratigraphic column,
the oldest layer of rock is located at the bottom. This
is pretty obvious - you can't put layer B on top of
layer A if layer A isn't there yet, and it's awfully hard
to slip layer A into a stratigraphic column without
disturbing the column.

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Crosscutting principles
If geologic unit A cuts through geologic unit B, then A is
younger than B. For example, if a fault breaks a rock
layer, the fault must be younger than the rock layer.

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The usage of stratigraphic

principle
You can use these principles to determine
the order in which layers were deposited,
cut and folded.
2

1
4

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Sandstone Reservoir

Sedimentary rock composed of

individual mineral grains of rock
fragments and cemented together
by silica, calcite and iron oxide.
It is commonly porous and
permeable and likely type of rock in
which to find a petroleum reservoir.

Sandstone reservoir

Sandstone Reservoir
Sandstone reservoirs are generally created by:
Accumulation of large amounts of clastic
sediments which is characteristic of depositional
environments such as river channels, deltas,
beaches, lakes and submarine fans.

Sandstone reservoirs have a depositional porosity

and permeability controlled by grain size, sorting, and
packing of the particular sediments.

Carbonate Reservoir
Sedimentary rock composed
primarily of calcium carbonate
(limestone) or calcium magnesium
carbonate (dolomite).
Sometimes makes up petroleum
reservoir.
Carbonate reservoirs are created
in marine sedimentary
environments with little or no
clastic material input.

Carbonate reservoir

Carbonate Reservoir
Porosity types of carbonate reservoirs include vuggy
(pores larger than grains), intergranular (between
grains), intragranular or cellular (within grains), and
fracture.
Diagenetic changes such as dolomitization, fracturing,
dissolution, and recrystalization (rare) are extremely
important because they have the ability to create very
effective secondary porosity.
Cementation, another type of diagenesis, generally
reduces porosity and permeability.

Carbonate Reservoir
Vuggy porosity
Form of secondary porosity resulting from the dissolution
of the more soluble portions of rock or solution
enlargement of pores or fractures.

Vuggy porosity in
carbonates

Carbonate Reservoir
Vuggy porosity

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