One-dimensional Momentum Theory and the

Betz Limit

Fig. Actuator disc model of a wind turbine; U, mean air velocity; 1, 2, 3, and 4 indicate locations

In order to calculate the maximum theoretical efficiency of a thin rotor one imagines it to be
replaced by a disc that withdraws energy from the fluid passing through it. At a certain
distance behind this disc the fluid that has passed through flows with a reduced velocity.

(p1= p4) &

(U2= U3)

Fig. An energy extracting actuator disc and stream-tube

Assumptions:
Homogenous, incompressible, steady state fluid flow;
. No frictional drag;
. An infinite number of blades;
. Uniform thrust over the disc or rotor area;
. A nonrotating wake;
. The static pressure far upstream and far downstream of the rotor is equal to the undisturbed
ambient static pressure

Applying the conservation of linear momentum to the control volume enclosing the whole
system, one can find the net force on the contents of the control volume.
thrust is equal and opposite to the rate of change of momentum of the air stream
1

2
Bernoulli function can be used in the two control volumes on either side of the actuator disc.
In the stream tube upstream of the disc:
3

In the stream tube downstream of the disc

4
it is assumed that the far upstream and far downstream pressures are equal (p1= p4)
and that the velocity across the disc remains the same (U2= U3).
The thrust can also be expressed as the net sum of the forces on each side of the actuator disc:

If one solves for (p2 p3) using Equations (3) and (4) and substitutes that into
Equation (5), one obtains

6
Equating the thrust values from Equations (2) and (6) and recognizing that the mass flow
rate is also
, one obtains:
7
Thus, the wind velocity at the rotor plane, using this simple model, is the average of the
upstream and downstream wind speeds.

If one defines the axial induction factor, a, as the fractional decrease in wind velocity
between the free stream and the rotor plane, then
8

10

quantity U1a is often referred to as the induced velocity at the rotor

The power out, P, is equal to the thrust times the velocity at the disc
11

Substituting for U2 and U4 from Equations (9) and (10) gives:

12

where the control volume area at the rotor, A2, is replaced by A, the rotor area, and the free
stream velocity U1 is replaced by U.

 Wind turbine rotor performance is usually characterized by its power coefficient,CP:

13

14
The maximum CP is determined by taking the derivative of the power coefficient (Equation (14))
with respect to a and setting it equal to zero, yielding a=1/3. Thus:
CP;max = 16/27 = 0.5926
15
thrust on a wind turbine can be characterized by a non-dimensional thrust coefficient:

16

Fig. Operating parameters for a Betz turbine; U, velocity of undisturbed air; U4, air velocity
behind the rotor; CP, power coefficient; CT , thrust coefficient.
In practice, three effects lead to a decrease in the maximum achievable power coefficient:
rotation of the wake behind the rotor;
finite number of blades and associated tip losses;
non-zero aerodynamic drag.

Ideal Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine with Wake

Rotation

In the case of a rotating wind turbine rotor, the flow behind the rotor rotates in the opposite
direction to the rotor, in reaction to the torque exerted by the flow on the rotor.

Fig. Stream tube model of flow behind rotating wind turbine blade.

Fig. Geometry for rotor analysis; U, velocity of undisturbed air; a, induction factor; r, radius
The generation of rotational kinetic energy in the wake results in less energy extraction by the
rotor than would be expected without wake rotation
If it is assumed that the angular velocity imparted to the flow stream, , is small compared to
the angular velocity,, of the wind turbine rotor, then it can also be assumed that the pressure in
the far wake is equal to the pressure in the free stream
The analysis that follows is based on the use of an annular stream tube with a radius r and a
thickness dr, resulting in a cross-sectional area equal to 2rdr

So for a small element the corresponding torque will be

For the rotating annular element

Define angular induction factor a:

V2 =V(1a) so:

Blade Element Momentum Theory

Blade element momentum theory is developed by combination of momentum
theory and blade element theory
1.

2.

Momentum Theory
i. Axial Force
ii. Rotating Annular Stream tube
Blade Element Theory
i. Relative Flow
ii. Blade Elements

Momentum Theory
Axial Force

Figure : Axial Stream tube around a Wind Turbine

Figure 4: The Blade Element Model

Relative Flow

The average rotational flow over the blade due to wake rotation is
therefore w/2. The blade is rotating with speed W. The average tangential velocity
that the blade experiences is therefore

V2 =V1(1a) and so:

local tip speed ratio r is defined as:

Blade Elements

where dL and dD are the lift and drag forces on the blade element respectively.dL and dD can be
found from the definition of the lift and drag coefficients as follows:

If there are B blades,

The Torque on an element, dT is simply the tangential force multiplied by the radius.

where is called the local solidity and is defined as

Tip Loss Correction

BLADE DESIGN
Airfoils commonly used in wind turbine blades are NACA 44xx and NACA
230xx series due to maximum lift coefficients, low pitching moment, and
minimum drag. For the present study, NACA 4418 airfoil section has been
used. The aerodynamic characteristic of NACA 4418 is given below:
Maximum lift coefficient CLmax of 1.797 which corresponds to critical
angle of attack (stall point) of 15
Zero-lift angle of attack of -4
Maximum lift to drag ratio or glide ratio (CL / CD)max of 44.447 which
corresponds to angle of attack of 6.5 and lift coefficient of 1.209 (where
CL is the lift coefficient and CD is the drag coefficient)
The blade was twisted in such a way that angle of attack remains constant
at all sections. The angle of attack of the blade at each section
corresponds to a maximum value of (CL / CD). The angle of attack
corresponding to (CL / CD) maximum (6.5) is chosen as design angle of
attack

Blade geometry for analysis Blade twist (T) is given by

p is the blade pitch angle and p,0 is the blade pitch angle at the tip. p can be obtained from