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Mathematical Induction
Outline
Sequences
Mathematical Induction
Division Algorithm
Euclidean Algorithm
Prime Factorization
Examples
Sequence
Eg: Finding Terms of Sequences Given by Explicit Formulas
k / (k + 1)
bi = (i 1 )/ i
Solution:
1 2 3
, , ,...
2 3 4
Alternating Sequence
An Alternating Sequence
Compute the first six terms of the sequence c0 , c1 , c2 ,
. defined as follows:
c (1)
Soln:
c (1)
c , c , c , c ,...
1, -1,1,-1,
4
Explicit Formula
Eg: Finding an Explicit Formula to Fit Given Initial Terms
Find an explicit formula for a sequence that has the following initial terms:
1 , - (1/4) , (1/9) , - (1/16) , (1/25) , - (1/36) , .
Soln:
a (1)
i
i 1
1
, i 1, i Z
i
2
Summation
Eg: Computing Summations
a)
ak
ak
b)
k=1
a 2k
c)
k=2
k=1
Soln:
a a a a a
1
a)
2 1 0 1 2
0
Summation formula
Eg: When the Terms of a Summation are given by a Formula
k2
k=1
Soln:
12 2 2 32 4 2 52
55
Summation Expansion
Eg: Changing from summation Notation to Expanded Form
(-1) i
i=0
i+1
Soln:
Expanded Form
Eg: Changing from Expanded Form to summation Notation
n+1
n+2
n+1
2n
Soln:
n
(i+1)/(n+i)
i=0
9
Eg: a) Rewrite the following summation and separate off the final term:
n
i=1
1
i2
a) 1, , 1/9, , 1/n2
i=1
Soln:
1 + 2n
i2
Product Notation
Product Notation ( ):
Eg:
5
1.
ak= a1a2a3a4a5
k=1
n
2.
3.
k / (k+1) = 1 / (1 + 1) = 1/2
k=1
11
Theorems
Properties of Summations and Products
Theorem:
If a m , a m+1 , a m+2 , and b m , b m+1 , b m+2 , are sequences of real numbers and c
is any real number, then the following equations hold for any integer n > m :
1.
2.
k=m
k=m
k=m
a k + b k = (a k + b k)
n
c. ak
k=m
3.
= c.ak
k=m
k=m
k=m
k=m
( ak )(bk)= (ak.bk)
12
b)
Soln:
k=m
k=m
ak + 2. bk
n
( ak )(bk)
k=m
k=m
13
Change of Variable
Eg: Change of variable
3
a)
k2 =
12 + 2 2 + 3 2
k =1
b) i 2 = 12 + 2 2 + 3 2
i =1
k =1
k =1
Observe that: k 2 = i 2
14
a)
(j 1) 2 = (2 1)2 + (3 2) 2 +(4 1) 2
j =2
= 12 + 2 2 + 3 2
b) i 2 = 12 + 2 2 + 3 2
k =1
Observe that: (j 1)
j =2
= i2
k =1
15
1/(k+1)
change j = k + 1
k =0
Soln:
7
(1/j)
J=1
16
k / (n + k)
change j = k - 1
k =1
Soln:
n
(j+1)/(j+n+1)
J=0
17
Mathematical Induction
Mathematical Induction most basic methods
of proof to establish the truth of a statement
about all the natural numbers or, sometimes
all sufficiently large integers.
18
Principle
Principle of Mathematical Induction
Let S(n) be a property that is defined for integers n, and let a be a
fixed integer. If
1. S(a) is true, and,
2. for all integers k > a , if S(k) is true then S(k+1) is true.
Then the statement, for all integers n > a , S(n) is true.
19
20
2
Soln:
21
Mathematical Induction
Eg: Sum of a Geometric Sequence
n
Prove that r i = r n + 1 - 1
i=0
r1
r except 1.
Soln:
22
Mathematical Induction
Eg: Proving a Divisibility Property
Use mathematical induction to prove that for all integers n > 1 , 2 2n 1 is
divisible by 3.
Soln:
23
Mathematical Induction
Eg: Proving an Inequality
Use mathematical induction to prove that for all integers n > 3 , 2n + 1 < 2 n
Soln:
24
Mathematical Induction
Eg: Proving a Property of a sequence
Define a sequence a1 , a2 , a3, . as follows:
a1 = 2
a k = 5 a k1
Use mathematical induction to show that the terms of the sequence satisfy the
property a n = 2 . 5 n 1
for all integers n > 1 .
Soln:
a.
25
Mathematical Induction
Eg: Prove that for each n Z +
n
i 2 = n ( n + 1) ( 2n + 1)
i=1
Soln:
26
Mathematical Induction
Eg: If n Z + , establish the validity of the open statement
n
S(n) : i = 1 + 2 + 3 + . + n = n 2 + n
i=1
Soln:
See slide 21
27
Mathematical Induction
Eg: Let us consider the sums of consecutive odd positive integers
1) 1
=1
(12 )
2) 1 + 3
=4
(22 )
3) 1 + 3 + 5
=9
(32 )
(42 )
4) 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16
The sum for the first n consecutive odd positive integers is n 2 , that is for all
n Z + . Prove S(n) by using mathematical induction.
n
S(n) : (2i 1) = n 2
Soln:
i=1
OK
28
Mathematical Induction
Eg:
4n
n2-7
4n
n2-7
1
2
3
4
4
8
12
16
-6
-3
2
9
5
6
7
8
20
24
28
32
18
29
42
57
From the table above, the values of 4n and n2-7 are listed where 1 < n < 8 .
From the table, observe that
(n2-7) < 4n
for n = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ,5
4n < (n2-7)
for n = 6 , 7 , 8
for n > 6
Soln:
29
Mathematical Induction
Eg: Sequence of Harmonic numbers is given below:
H1 = 1
H2 = 1 + = 3/2
H3 = 1 + + 1/3 = 11/6
Soln:
H(1) = 1
k+1
30
Division Algorithm
Divisibility: The Division Algorithm
31
Soln:
32
3. If a | b and b | c then a | c .
33
1| a and a| 0
b) [(a | b) (b | a) ] a = b
c)
[(a | b) (b | c) ] a | c
d) a | b a | bx , for all x Z
e)
f)
35
36
37
a: dividend
b: divisor
q: quotient
r: remainder
Eg: a) a = 170 , b = 11
b) a = 98 , b = 7
c) a = - 45 , b = 8
a) 170 = 15(11) + 5
b) 98= 14(7) + 0
c) -45 = -6(8) + 3
a
45
45
-45
-45
b
8
-8
8
-8
q
5
-5
-6
6
r
5
5
3
3
38
58
58
-58
-58
17
-17
17
-17
3
-3
-4
4
7
7
10
10
39
a)
b)
c)
d)
500 = 29(17) + 7
-500 = -30(17) +10
500 = -29(-17) + 7
-500 = 30(-17) + 10
40
a) 9 = 1(7) + 2
b) 589621 = 74(7893) +5539
c) 11109999999 = 9999999(1111)+1110
41
GCD:Euclidean Algorithm
The Greatest Common Divisor: the Euclidean Algorithm
70 = 1(42) + 28
42 = 1(28) + 14
28 = 2(14) + 0
Gcd(42,70)=14
43
Note:
1. gcd (a , b) = gcd (a ,-b) = gcd (-a ,b) = gcd (-a ,-b) for a , b Z
2. For each a Z , if a = 0 , then gcd (a , 0) = | a |
3. Integers a and b are relatively prime when gcd ( a , b ) = 1
4. If c is gcd (a , b ) then c = ax + by where x , y , a , b , c Z
44
y = (1/5) (3/5) x
45
46
47
ri q i 2 ri1 ri 2 , 0 ri 2 ri1
rk 3 q k 1rk 2 rk 3 , 0 rk 1 rk 2
rk 2 q k rk 1 rk , 0 rk rk 1
rk 1 q k 1rk
Then rk , the last nonzero remainder, equals gcd( a , b).
48
13 = 234 1(221)
= 234 - 1[689-2(234)]
= 3(234) -1(689)
Hence gcd(689,234) = 13
13 = 689x
+ 234y
= 689(-1) +234(3)
49
Soln:
431 = 14(29) + 25
29 = 1(25) + 4
25 = 6(4) + 1
hence gcd(431,29) =1
1 = 431x + 29y
1 = 431(7) +29(-104)
1=25 6(4)
=25 6 (29-1(25))
=25 6(29) + 6(25)
=7(25) 6(29)
=7(431-14(29)) 6(29)
=7(431) (104)(29)
50
250 111
*2 222
28
84
27
*1 27
1
1 =28-1(27)
=28-1[111-3(28)]
=(-1)111+4(28)
=(-1)111+4[250-2(111)]
=4(250)+(-9)(111)
x = 4, y = -9
51
8n+3 5n+2
5n+2
3n+1
3n+1
2n+1
2n+1
n
2n
1
Eg: Griffin has two unmarked containers. One container holds 17 ounces and
the other holds 55 ounces. Explain how Griffin can use his two containers to
have exactly one ounce.
Soln:
Gcd (17 , 55) = 1 , 1=13(17)-4(55),
Consequently, Griffin must fill his smaller container 13 times and empty the
contents into the larger container. Affer 12 times filling from small container to
the bigger container, 12(17) =204 and 3(55) = 165 i.e. 39 oz left in bigger
container.
55=3(17) + 4
17=4(4) + 1
4 =4(1) + 0
Gcd(55,17) =1
1 = 17 4(4)
= 17 4[55-3(17)]
53
= 13(17) 4(55)
54
***The Solutions***
55
1 = 5(1) +2( 2)
102 = 5(102) +2( 204)
= 5(102-2n) + 2(-204+5n)
6x + 10y = 104
3x + 5y = 52
5 = 1(3) + 2
3 = 1(2) + 1
2 = 1(2) + 0
Gcd(3,5) = 1
1= 3 1(2)
= 3 1[5-1(3)]
= 3(2) + 5(-1)
So,
52 = 3(104) + 5(-52)
52 = 3(104 - 5n) + 5(-52+3n)
57
58
104 = 6x + 10y
52 = 3x + 5y
52 = 3(104) + 5(-52)
= 3(104-5n) + 5(-52+3n)
X= 104 5n >= 0
Y = -52 + 3n >= 0
52/3 =< n <= 104/5
17.3 < n < 20.8
Therefore n=18, 19 and 20
N=18
x= 104 - 5(18) = 14
y= -52 + 3(18) = 2
N=19
x= 104 - 5(19) = 9
y= -52 + 3(19) = 5
N=20
x= 104 - 5(20) = 4
y= -52 + 3(20) = 8
59
Prime Factorization
The Prime Factorization
a = p1a1p2a2p3a3pnan
b = p1b1p2b2p3b3pnbn
where each exponent is a nonnegative integer.
Then, gcd(a , b) is given by
61
Gcd(120,500) = 22 51 =20
500=4(120) + 20
120=6(20) + 0
62
a = p1a1p2a2p3a3pnan
b = p1b1p2b2p3b3pnbn
where each exponent is a nonnegative integer.
Then, lcm(a , b) is given by
lcm(a
63
64
65
66
Examples
Problem Examples
Eg: A fast-food chain has a contest in which a card with numbers on it is given to each
customer who makes a purchase. If some of the numbers on the card add up to 100, then
he will be awarded $100. A customer receives a card containing the numbers 72 , 21 ,15 ,
36 , 69 , 81 , 9 , 27 , 42 and 63. Will the customer win $100? Why or Why not?
Soln:
68
Problem Examples
Eg: Check the following integer for divisibility by 3 , 4 , 5 and 9.
a)
637,425,403,705,125
b)
12,858,306,120,312
c)
517,924,440,926,512
d)
14,328,083,360,232
69
End of Chapter 3
Mathematical Induction
70