A.

POWER SYSTEM OPERATIONS

This section discusses several elements of power system operations, including

forecasting and the day-ahead schedule or unit commitment, within-a-day
economic dispatch, frequency response and control , and operating reserves.

A1. SECURITY-CONSTRAINED UNIT

COMMITMENT

If a large thermal generator is suddenly lost, the instantaneous impact of

such a loss to the surrounding power system and system operating
reserves requirements is depicted in Figure above. Turbine speed
governors and the systems automatic generation control (AGC) sense a
drop in system frequency and initiate corrective action to increase
power from generators that are still operating.

Unit commitment is a process of determining which generating units that

will be needed for the next day, and ensuring that any large thermal
units started and synchronized to the grid. This process is based on the
day-ahead load forecast, an estimated 2-3% of the peak load. The aim
of this process is for the solution of every economic problem.
in this process, many of the risks faced, either too much or too little
capacity is committed. operating reserves appeared to be the solution
of these problem.

A2. ECONOMIC DISPATCH AND LOAD

FOLLOWING

Economic dispatch is the short-term determination of the optimal output

of a number of electricity generation facilities, to meet the system load,
at the lowest possible cost, subject to transmission and operational
constraints. In order to serve load at minimum total cost, the set of
generators with the lowest marginal costs must be used first, with the
marginal cost of the final generator needed to meet load setting the
system marginal cost.

A3. FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND

CONTROL

The value of Frequency Control is 60 Hz. If there is deviation from 60 Hz,

its indicates that there is a problem in the power system, the larger the
deviation, the bigger the problem. Abnormal frequency will damage the
power system, especially large steam turbines. While Frequency
response from generators actually helps protect the turbines from
abnormal frequencies by limiting the magnitude of the frequency
change during events.

B. TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGY AND

INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES

This chapter provides a brief overview of transmission technology and then

an introduction to the basic institutional issues.

B.1 TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGY

Worldwide, the transmission technologies in use and functioning today,

either broadly or in initial installations, for transmitting bulk electrical
power are high, extra-high, and ultra-high-voltage AC transmission
systems up to 1,000 kV (Global Transmission 2009); high and ultrahigh-voltage DC transmission systems; and underground cables. The
current motivation for pursuing new higher capacity transmission
technology is the growth of large regional markets and the opportunity
for greater economic exchange.

AC&HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

1. Alternating Current Transmission Systems

In this ctransmission systems, higher voltages result in
lower losses and higher capacity for a given right-of-way.
Also, higher voltages are preferred for longer distances and
larger transfer capacity.
2. High-Voltage Direct Current Transmission Systems

High-voltage direct current (HVDC) is occasionally used for

very long distance or very high capacity lines. HVDC lines
cost less than overhead high-voltage AC lines of the same
voltage and have lower operating losses.

HIGHER VOLTAGES
AND SUPERCONDUCTING CABLES

3. Higher Voltages
The advantage of using higher voltages is the decline in per unit
costs; the disadvantage is the risk of losing a larger portion of
transmission capacity in a single contingency failure.
4. Superconducting Cables
These cables use high-temperature superconductor materials
instead of copper or aluminum and have substantially higher
power handling capabilities at lower voltages than conventional
cables. however, there are parasitic refrigeration losses. The
commercial competitiveness remains to be fully demonstrated in
the market. As this technology is not commercial, it was not
included in RE Futures transmission modeling.

B.2 TRANSMISSION AND INSTITUTIONAL

ISSUES

1. State and Federal Jurisdictions

the regulatory and economic drivers affecting transmission planning are
split among the federal government and the states.

2. Siting, Permitting, and Right-of-Way Acquisition

Currently, the siting and permitting of transmission lines is the
responsibility of individual states.
3. Transmission Cost Allocation

Transmission cost allocation is controversial and one of the most important

issues to resolve if significant transmission system expansion is to be
realized.