Crime Control Theory

Kawalan Jenayah
Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

publishing as Pearson [imprint]
Causes of Crime Punca-punca

Jenayah
Why does a person commit a crime?
What causes crime and deviance? (jenayah dan sisihan)
Are people basically good?
Why are some people violent and aggressive? (ganas dan
agresif)
Are people motivated only by self-interest? ( didorong oleh
kepentingan diri sendiri)

Criminologists search for answers to those types of
questions. (masih kajian mengenai perkara tersebut

dilakukan olih pakar2 kriminoloji).

Criminology Kriminologi kajian jenayah serta penjenayah

Criminology seeks to find the cause of crime and deviant
behavior.
Crime (Jenayah)
violation of the criminal law for which there is no legal
justification.
Deviance (Sisihan / melencong)
Violation (melanggar) of social norms (norma / amalan
biasa) that specify appropriate or proper behavior under a

particular set of circumstances (often includes crime).
Criminological Theory
Through the years, many theories have been
advanced to explain crime and deviance.

Theories posit relationships between events and things
Teori mengaitkan peristiwa2 dan benda2 yang tertentu

Once created, theories must be tested to determine validity.

Theory Testing
Theory testing involves developing hypotheses based on
the theorys predictions. (Semua teori perlu diuji)

If the predictions are validated by observation, the
theory gains greater acceptability (ramalan disahkan

oleh pemerhatian)
Hypotheses (hipotesis kajian) are tested using research
methodsstandardized, systematic procedures.

Goal of Research and Theory Building

To provide models that allow for a better understanding
of criminal behavior and that enhance the development

of strategies which allow us to address the problem of
crime.


Categories of Theory of Crime

Explanations of criminal behavior (perlakuan jenayah) fall into eight
general categories.
Classical (traditional / conventional)
Biological berkaitan biologi
Psychobiological berkaitan psikologi dan biologi
Psychological berkaitan psikologi
Sociological berkaitan sosial
Social Process proses sosial
Conflict - konflik
Emergent (muncul)
Interdisciplinary theories, or integrated theories, could possibly be a
ninth category.


Characteristics of Classical and

Neoclassical Theories
Basic Assumptions
Crime is caused by the individual exercise of free
will. ( dgn rela hati)
2. Pain and pleasure are the two central determinants
of human behavior. (kesakitan dan kesronokan)
3. Punishment is sometimes required to deter law
violators. (Hukuman diperlukan utk menghalang)
4. Crime prevention is possible through swift and
certain punishment, which offsets any gains to be
had through criminal behavior. (Pencegahan
Jenayah boleh dijaminkan menerusi hukuman
kadar segera)
1.

Classical School idea on Crime

The principle of Utilitarianism. The greatest happiness
principle.
Bentham says, "it is the greatest happiness of the greatest
number that is the measure of right and wrong"
(Maksud prinsip tsb adalah kebahagiaan yang paling besar
dinikmati olih jumlah terbesar masyarakat
adalah ukuran benar
dengan yang salah )

Cesare Beccaria: Crime and Punishment

In 1784, Beccaria published Essays on Crimes and
Punishment. Beccaria:
Was considered controversial at the time.
Is referred to as the founder of the Classical School
of criminology (pengasas sekolah klasik)

Felt punishments should be more humanitarian.
Called for the end of physical punishment and the
death penalty. (hukuman fisikal dan hukuman
mati)
Believed that punishment should fit the crime and
not be excessive. (hukuman harus sesuai jenayah)
Jeremy Benthams Hedonistic Calculus

hedonistik (menyeronokan diri)
Concept developed by Jeremy Bentham (17481832)
The exercise of free will would cause an individual to avoid
committing a crime as long as the punishment outweighed
the benefits (hukuman lebih berat dpd faedah/kesronokan)

Bentham called this philosophy utilitarianism.
Agreed with Beccaria that punishment had to be swift
and certain as well as just to be effective


Neo-classical criminology
Theory
which
focuses
on
manipulating
the
environment to decrease the opportunity for crime

rather than attempting to manipulate the offenders

The Neoclassical Perspective

Neoclassical criminology is rooted in the
classical school.
Places greater emphasis on rationality and
cognition (memikir) than classical criminologists

Examples:
Rational choice theory (pilihan secara rasional)
Routine activities theory ( aktiviti rutin/biasa)
The Neoclassical Perspective

Rational choice theory holds that criminality is the result
of conscious choice.
Individuals commit crime when the benefits outweigh the
costs.
Routine activities theory holds that lifestyles contribute to
the volume and type of crime found in society.

Crime is likely to occur when a motivated offender and a
suitable target come together in absence of a capable

guardian.

Social Policy and Classical Theories

Classical
theories form the basis of many
criminal justice programs.

High crime rates call for punishment to get even
and to prevent future crime.

Characteristics of Biological Theories
Basic Assumptions
1.
Human behavior is constitutionally or genetically

determined.
2.
Basic determinants of human behavior may be

passed from generation to generation.
3.
Some behavior is the result of propensities inherited
from more primitive developmental stages in the

evolutionary process.
Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828): Phrenology

Phrenology, study of the shape of the head and its
relationship to human behavior, focused on the head

and brain in what Gall called cranioscopy.
The brain is the organ of the mind.
The brain consists of localized faculties or functions.

Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828): Phrenology

The shape of the skull reveals underlying
development (or lack of development) of areas

within the brain.
A personality can be revealed by a study of the
skull.

Cesare Lombroso
(1835-1909): Atavism
Lombrosothe founder of the Positivist School of
criminologyborrowed the term atavism from the

work of Charles Darwin.
Atavism implies that people are born criminals and are
characterized by features thought to be common in earlier

stages of human evolution.
Examples of stigmata: long arms, large lips, crooked nose,
large amount of body hair, eyes of different colors, ears
lack defined lobes, etc

Characteristics of Psychobiological
Theories
Focus is on the relationship of the
following to
criminal behavior:
1. DNA
2. environmental contaminants
3. nutrition
4. hormones
5. physical trauma
6. body chemistry in human cognition and behavior
Chromosome Theory
The links between chromosomes and crime were
first explored in the 1960s.

1965Patricia Jacobs discovered supermales,
men with an extra Y chromosome (XYY). She

found that supermales were more common in
prisons than in the general public.

Chromosome Theory
Other studies found that XYY males were more
aggressive than other males and had a number of

specific physical and psychological traits.
Later studies disputed many of these findings.

Biochemical Factors and Imbalances

Bio-criminology
attempts to link violent or
disruptive behavior to eating habits, vitamin

deficiencies, genetics, and other conditions which
impact body tissues.
For example, some studies have linked crime to:
Hypoglycemia
Allergic reactions to foods
High levels of caffeine and sugar
Testosterone levels
Heredity and Other Physical Factors

Adoption and twin studies have shown:
Children adopted at birth have shown a tendency
toward criminality of biological parents.

Identical twins separated at birth indicate that they
exhibit a greater similarity in terms of criminality
than do fraternal twins.
Wilson
and Herrnstein (1985) argue that

inherited traits combine with environmental
factors to produce crime.
Social Policy and Biological Theories

Policies look to modify body chemistry to
change behavior.
Example: Medication

Characteristics of Psychological Theories

The individual is the main unit of analysis.
2. Personality is the major motivational element.
3. Crimes result from inappropriately conditioned
behavior.
4. Abnormal
mental
processes
may
have a number of causes.
1.
Diseased mind
Inappropriate learning
Improper conditioning

Behavioral Conditioning
Behavioral conditioning is a psychological principle
which holds that the frequency of any behavior can

be
increased
or
decreased
through
reward,
punishment, and/or association with other stimuli.

This was popularized through the work of Ivan
Pavlov (18491936) whose work with dogs won him a

Nobel Prize.
Freudian Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud (18561939) identified three

elements of the personality:
1.
Id
2.
Ego
3.
Superego
Psychoanalysis sees personality as a complex

composite of interacting mental elements.
Freudian Psychoanalysis
Crime can result from:
A weak superego
Sublimation/dislike of ones mother
The death wish

Psychopathology and Crime

Psychopathology
studies pathological mental

conditions (mental illness).
PsychopathDefining characteristic is the
inability to imagine how other think and feel
It is possible for the psychopath to inflict pain
without appreciation for the victims suffering.
Psychopathic people are likely to become criminal
at some point.

Causes of Psychopathy
Causes are unclear
1.Somatogenic causes
malfunctioning central
nervous system brain abnormalities
2.Psychogenic causes
Rooted in early interpersonal experiences

The Psychotic Offender

Psychosis is another form of mental disorder.
Psychotics are people who are said to be out of touch with
reality.
Some psychotics are classified as
schizophrenicpeople with disordered or disjointed
thinking in which they make abnormal logical
connections between things.

Psychosis can lead to crime.
Psychological Profiling
An attempt to derive a composite picture of an
offenders social and psychological characteristics

Taken from the crime committed and the manner in
which it was committed

New area includes hostage negotiation

Social Policy and Psychological Theories

Policies are primarily individualistic and oriented
toward individualized treatment and therapy

plans
designed
to
reduce
persons
dangerousness.

Characteristics of Sociological Theories

Social
groups,
social institutions,
the
arrangement of society, and social roles are all
appropriate for study.
2. Group dynamics, group organization, and
subgroup relationships form the causal basis of
criminality.
3. The structure of society and the relative degree
of social organization or social disorganization
are important factors contributing to criminal
behavior.
1.

Characteristics of Sociological Theories

Particular sociological theories may give greater or
lesser weight to:

The clash of norms and values among variously
socialized groups
Socialization and the process of association between
individuals
The existence of subcultures and varying types of
opportunities
Social Ecology Theory

In the 1920s, Park and Burgess mapped
Chicago
based
on
the
citys
social
characteristics.
They developed the Concentric Zone Theory.

Concentric zones are likened to a bulls eye with the center
of the city being the target.

Social Ecology Theory

Shaw and McKay related this theory to crime.
Crime increased as one moved towards center of
the city, with the highest crime rates in the zone
of transition, where there was a lot of poverty,

illiteracy, lack of schooling, unemployment, and
illegitimacy (social disorganization).

Social disorganization leads to crime.
Anomie Theory
Emile Durkheim (18581917) introduced the term
anomie (normlessness) in the late 1800s.

Robert K. Merton (19102003) defined anomie as a
disjuncture between societal goals and legitimate

means.
He developed a typology of adaptations.

Anomie Theory - Characters

Conformistaccepts
goals and means
(law abiding)
Innovatoraccepts goals, rejects means
(property/white-collar offenses)
Retreatestrejects both goals and means
(addiction/victimless crimes)
Ritualistrejects goals, accepts means
(repetitive/mundane lifestyle)
Rebelrejects goals and means and
substitutes his own goals and means
(political crime)

Sub-cultural Theory
Cohen (b. 1918)reaction formation, lower class
youths rejection of middle class values, leads to the

development of gangs and reinforces the subculture.
MillerLower class priority concerns of trouble,
toughness,
excitement,
smartness,
fate,
and
autonomy lead to crime.

Subcultural Theory
Cloward and Ohlin proposed that an illegitimate
opportunity structure allows delinquent youths to

achieve success outside of legitimate ways.
Wolfgang and Ferracuti coined the term subculture
of violence after examining homicide rates in

Philadelphia in the 1950s.
Here, violence is a traditional, and often accepted, method
of dispute resolution.
Social Policy and Sociological Theories

Social programs are instituted to change cultural
conditions and societal arrangements that lead

people into crime.

Characteristics of Social Process Theories

They highlight the role of social learning
They are often the most attractive to policymakers
They are consistent with popular cultural and
religious values

Differential Association
Edwin Sutherland (1883-1950), in his third
edition of
Principles of Criminology (1939),
viewed crime as a product of socialization.

Crime is learned.
It is learned by the same
principles that guide learning of law abiding
behavior of conformists.

Principles of Differential Association

Social Process Theories

Social Learning Theory:
a perspective that says people learn how to behave
from others whom they have the opportunity to
observe.

Social Learning Theory

Ronald L. Akers and Robert L. Burgess applied
learning theory constructs to the theory of

differential association.
Their theory of differential reinforcement is called
social learning theory.

Primary learning takes place through operant conditioning.

Restraint Theories
Restraint theories focus on Constraintsthose forces
that keep people from committing crimes.

Contrasts other theories that look to why people
commit crimes.

Containment Theory
One restraint theory, offered by Walter Reckless
(1899-1988) is containment theory.
There are two types of Containment:

1.
Outerelements outside of individual (friends, law,

family, social position) control behavior.
2.
Innerthose elements psychological in nature
(conscience, positive self-image, tolerance) control

behavior.
Social Control Theory
Travis Hirschi emphasized the bond between
individuals
and
society
as
the
primary
operative mechanism
Elements of the social bond include:

1.
Attachment (to others)
2.
Commitment (to appropriate lifestyles)
3.
Involvement (in conventional values)
4.
Belief (in correctness of rules of society)

Techniques of Neutralization
In Techniques of Neutralization (1957), Gresham Sykes

and David Matza developed rationalizations that allow
offenders to shed feelings of guilt and responsibility
The techniques are:

1.
Denial of responsibility
2.
Denial of injury
3.
Denial of victim
4.
Condemnation of condemners
5.
Appeal to higher loyalties

Labeling Theory
Labeling theory sees continued crime as a consequence
of the limited opportunities for acceptable behavior that

follow from the negative responses of society for those
defined as offenders.
First introduced by Frank Tannenbaum (1938)
Focused on societys power to define an act or individual
as bad
Labeling Theory
In 1963, Howard Becker suggested that:
a. Criminality is not a quality inherent in the act or
the person.
b.Crime results from social definition through law of
unacceptable behavior.
c. Deviance is created by society.

The Life Course Perspective

Social development theories represent an integrated
view of human development that points to the

process
of
interaction
among
and
between
individuals and society as the root cause of criminal

behavior.

The Life Course Perspective

An example, put forth in 1993 by Sampson and Laub, is
the life course perspective.

Crime is linked to turning points in ones life.
Turning points are transitional periods during which one
can either walk toward or away from crime.

Characteristics of Conflict Theory

Conflict perspective: maintains that crime is
the natural consequence of economic and other

social inequities.
Key elements are:
1. Society is composed of diverse social groups.
2. Conflict among groups is unavoidable because of differing
interests and differing values.

3. Group conflict centers on exercise of political power.
4. Laws further the interests of the lawmakers.

Radical Criminology
Radical criminology sees crime as produced by
the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and

other resources.
Poverty and discrimination leads to frustration and
pent-up hostilities expressed through crime.

Karl Marx (18181883) assumed lower classes
are always exploited by the owners of the

means of production.
False class consciousnessthe poor are trained to
believe that capitalism is in their best interest.

Peacemaking Criminology
Peacemaking criminology holds that crime control
agencies and citizens should work together to

alleviate social problems and human suffering, and
thereby reduce crime.
Rooted in both western and eastern philosophies.
Social
control
must
also
focus
on
victims
and
victimization.
Popularized by Richard Quinney and Hal Pepinsky.
Social Policy and Conflict Theories

Many suggest that the only real way to produce
change is through revolution.

Modern thinkers believe that we need a middleof-the-road solution, as revolution is unlikely to
occur in the U.S. Such solutions include:
Increasing job opportunities

Reducing prison overcrowding
Prosecuting corporate crimes
Restructuring the bail system
Promoting community corrections

Feminist Criminology
Feminist criminology emphasizes gender issues
and seeks to develop appreciation of the role of

women in crime causation, victimization, and
crime control.
Rita SimonWomen and Crime (1975) and Freda Adler
Sisters in Crime (1975)

Explain differences in gender crime rates as due primarily to
socialization rather than biology
Kathleen Daly and Meda Chesney-Lind

Emphasizes need for a gender-aware criminology

Constitutive Criminology
Constitutive criminology studies the process by which
people create an ideology of crime that sustains the notion

of crime as a concrete reality.
George Herbert Meads symbolic interaction theory
William Thomas
An acts significance depends on the intentions behind it
and the situation in which it is interpreted.

Stuart Henry and Dragan Milovanovic
People shape their world while also being shaped by it.
Postmodern Criminology
Postmodern criminology includes a wide variety of
recent, novel perspectives of crime that build upon

the belief that past approaches fail to realistically
assess the true causes of crime and provide workable
solutions to crime.

Postmodern Criminology
Examples:
Chaos analysis
Discourse analysis
Topology theory
Critical theory
Realist criminology
Constitutive theory
Anarchic criminology














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Kawalan Jenayah

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Causes of Crime Punca-punca

kepentingan diri sendiri)

questions. (masih kajian mengenai perkara tersebut

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Criminology Kriminologi kajian jenayah serta penjenayah

biasa) that specify appropriate or proper behavior under a

advanced to explain crime and deviance.

Teori mengaitkan peristiwa2 dan benda2 yang tertentu

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

the theorys predictions. (Semua teori perlu diuji)

theory gains greater acceptability (ramalan disahkan

methodsstandardized, systematic procedures.

Goal of Research and Theory Building

of criminal behavior and that enhance the development

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Categories of Theory of Crime

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Characteristics of Classical and

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Classical School idea on Crime

adalah ukuran benar

dengan yang salah )

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Cesare Beccaria: Crime and Punishment

of criminology (pengasas sekolah klasik)

Jeremy Benthams Hedonistic Calculus

committing a crime as long as the punishment outweighed

the benefits (hukuman lebih berat dpd faedah/kesronokan)

and certain as well as just to be effective

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

environment to decrease the opportunity for crime

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

The Neoclassical Perspective

cognition (memikir) than classical criminologists

The Neoclassical Perspective

the volume and type of crime found in society.

suitable target come together in absence of a capable

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Social Policy and Classical Theories

theories form the basis of many

criminal justice programs.

and to prevent future crime.

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Characteristics of Biological Theories

Human behavior is constitutionally or genetically

Basic determinants of human behavior may be

Some behavior is the result of propensities inherited

from more primitive developmental stages in the

Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828): Phrenology

relationship to human behavior, focused on the head

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828): Phrenology

development (or lack of development) of areas

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

criminologyborrowed the term atavism from the

characterized by features thought to be common in earlier

Copyright 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

first explored in the 1960s.

men with an extra Y chromosome (XYY). She