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ITECH1002 Network Operating
Systems
Introduction
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Lab tasks (Topics 1-5) 7% (Marked weekly in lab classes)
Lab tasks (Topics 6-10) 8% (Marked weekly in lab classes)

Laboratory test (week 7) 10% [ type B] (lab timeslot)
Theory test (week 7) 10% [type B] (lecture timeslot)

Networking Assignment 15% (Due in weeks 6 & 11)
(Section 1 understanding will help with Theory & lab test preparation)

Exam 50% [ type B]
(The exam covers the entire semesters work)
Assessment
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The Networked World
The Internet
Most computers now are connected

Computers are used through an Operating System
Windows (various), Linux (various), Mac

How does the OS do networking

How does the OS interoperate?
Where are we going?
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An OS needs to know the hardware
Driver software needed for every hardware variation

Most computers work in Windows
Windows drivers exist for most hardware

Linux drivers far harder to find
Some hardware though is well supported

How to run Linux everywhere?
At home
Many different computer labs
Windows and Linux everywhere?
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Special Windows software creates the illusion of a standard
machine
A Virtual Machine (VM)
Well-supported hardware
That isnt really there!
Install Linux on the Virtual Machine
Drivers always available
Install Windows on the Virtual Machine
A copy of Windows that you can mess about with
Virtualisation
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The host OS
The virtualisation software runs on this
We use Oracles Virtual Box on Windows
There are others

The guest OS
The one we want to play with
We provide an Ubuntu image & an XP image
Can install many others!
Virtualisation buzz words
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We count by tens
One thousand is 10
3
One million is 10
6


Computers count by twos
Because theyre made of many,
many switches that can be
either on or off
Nearest to 1000 is 2
10
(1024)
This is a true KB
Nearest to 1,000,000 is 2
20
(1,048,576)
This is a true MB

What is a true GB? (as a power of 2)

Number systems
1 GB = 1000 MB
Actually 1024 MB
Multiplying numbers means adding
powers
2
10
X 2
20
= 2
30

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How many switches does it take to store a certain sized
number?
2
10
needs ten switches
2
32
needs thirty two switches

One byte of memory contains eight switches
Eight bits in a byte

Hence 2
32
needs four bytes of storage

Storing binary numbers
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How do we describe what is stored in those four bytes?
11100101011111110001000110100 would be one way.
(a number in this format is hard to remember)
The decimal equivalent (481288756) is not very useful
because it is completely unrelated to bits of storage
The universal shorthand is to group the bits, four at a time
and then use a number/letter to describe each 4 bit value
This is the hexadecimal number system
See the next slide
Representing binary numbers
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4 bits (often called a nibble) is a smallish number
How big?
Imagine the column headings above each bit
Each heading is a power of two increasing to the left
Represent 4 bits as a character?
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
0

1 2 4 8
There are 16 possible values
0,1,2.15
Our problem is to represent each of these 16 values
with a single character
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We use 0x to indicate a
hexadecimal (hex) number
Some are obvious
0000 : 0x0
0001 : 0x1
0010 : 0x2
0100 : 0x4
Some require some
addition
0011 : 0x3
0110 : 0x6
0111 : 0x7

Then we have a problem
so we use letters
1010 : 0xA (ten)
1011: 0xB (eleven)
1100 : 0xC (twelve)
1101 : 0xD (thirteen)
1110 : 0xE (fourteen)
1111 : 0xF (fifteen)
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11100101011111110001000110100 111001010111111100010001- 0100 111001010111111100010-0011- 0100 11100101011111110-0010-0011-0100 1110010101111-1110-0010-0011-0100 111001010-1111-1110-0010-0011-0100 11100-1010-1111-1110-0010-0011-0100 1-1100-1010-1111-1110-0010-0011-0100
Representing a 4 byte number
11100101011111110001000110100
The number from a few slides ago
Divide into 4 bit chunks. Start at the right!
Well see why
Oops! Only
one bit left!
Pad it with
zeros
0001-1100-1010-1111-1110-0010-0011-0100
Now code each nibble in hex
4 3 2 E F A C 1
The hexadecimal number is: 0x1CAFE234
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All number systems have:

Base (10 for Decimal, 2 for Binary, 16 for hexadecimal)

Valid digits (0-9 for Decimal, 0 & 1 for binary)

Each digit has a weighting
(Base)
0
(least significant digit) [ 1s for decimal ]
(Base)
1
(next digit) [ 10s for decimal]
(Base)
2
(next digit) [ 100s for decimal]
(Base)
3
(next digit) [ 1000s for decimal]
Structure of any Number system
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8 bit Binary number structure:
Valid digits = 0 & 1. Base = 2.






All other number systems have a similar structure however
with different bases, weightings & valid digits.


Structure of binary numbers
2
7
= 2
0
=
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

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Computers need unique addresses to use the Internet
An Internet Protocol address (IP address)
Just as we need unique phone numbers

How are these addresses stored?
IPv6 (the new scheme) uses 16 bytes (128 bits) for each
address
IPv4 (the older and most common scheme) uses 4 bytes
(32 bits) for each address
Internet addresses
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IPv6
128 bits of storage so 2
128
This is an enormous number
3.402 10
38
4.510
15
addresses for every observable star in the known universe

IPv4
32 bits of storage so 2
32
A much smaller number
Around 4 billion
Not even one for each person in the world!
Address starvation is a real issue


How many unique addresses?
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A global address must answer two questions
Where in the world?
Then where?
Consider a phone number:
+61 3 53 279279
+61 3 53 says where in the world
Australia/Victoria/Ballarat
279279 says where then
A particular phone in Ballarat
Network jargon?
Where in the world = network address
Where then = node address
Whats in an IP address?
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Now all the focus on bits will make sense
IPv6 address: the 16 bytes are shown
Splitting an IP address network & node
Network where in the world Node then where
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IPv4 address: the 4 bytes are shown
IPv4 network and node
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A few big networks
1 byte network 3 bytes node
Class A
Quite a few medium sized networks
2 bytes network 2 bytes node
Class B
As in previous slide
A lot of small networks
3 bytes network 1 byte node
Class C
IPv4 different sized networks
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Breaking up huge networks
Subnetting
Human representation of IP addresses
IPv4 decimal
IPv6 hexa-decimal
How computers break IP addresses apart
The subnet mask
Binary operations AND, NOT
Default gateway
Without this theres no Internet!
Where next?
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We have assumed this is unlimited
IPv6 we assumed 2
64
(8 bytes for node count)
IPv4 we assumed 2
24
in Class A (3 bytes for node count)

In practice this is really a few hundreds or thousands
This is the limit of current technologies

We need a way to divide our networks up
To divide the address into smaller sub sections
How many nodes on a network?
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Two bytes will identify the subnet
IPv6 subnetting
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Shows a Class A network using one byte to identify the
subnet
IPv4 subnetting
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Computers use bytes (16 or 4)

Humans use
IPv6 hexadecimal
The decimal numbers are too huge
IPv4 decimal
One decimal number (0-255) per byte
After all there are only 4 of them
Each byte is sometimes referred to as an octet
Human representation of IP addresses
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An example (16 bytes remember)
2001:cdba:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652
Eight groups of four hex digits
Each hex digit is 4 bits: 8 x 4 x 4 = 128
Separated by colons

A lot of writing so some shortcuts:
Four zeros can be written as one
2001:cdba:0:0:0:0:3257:9652
Or even omitted
2001:cdba::3257:9652
IPv6 representation
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Loopback
Talk to yourself with no network traffic
::1/128
No host bits at all! There can only ever be one

Link local
Only work on local network
fe80::/10 (fe80=1111 1110 1000)
The 10 network bits are in red
Remaining 118 bits can have any value
Special IPv6 addresses
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Using IPv6 through a IPv4 Internet?
The 6to4 tunnel
2002::/16
One of these addresses is automatically assigned by
Windows

Normal IPv6 addresses
Directly accessible in an IPv6 Internet
Accessible by 6to4 through a relay router
2001::/16
More special IPv6 addresses
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An example (4 bytes remember)
141.132.64.20
Four decimal numbers
Between 0 and 255
Separated by periods

No shortcuts
None needed!
IPv4 representation
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Loopback talk to yourself with no network traffic
127.0.0.1/32
Only one host on this network
Special IPv4 addresses
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Given an IP address how can we say what is network and
therefore what is node

Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR) notation
2001:cdba:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652/80
Means that the first 80 bits (10 bytes) are network
141.132.64.20/24
Means that the first 24 bits (3 bytes) are network
Representing networks
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The next few slides test some of the knowledge in this lecture

Puzzle 1
Matching networks figure out which IP addresses are on
the same network

Puzzle 2
Deciding subnet bits what should the CIDR notation be for
each of the networks shown
IP address quiz
Faculty of Science Which nodes are on the same network?
ffee:032c:0000:87d3:302a:34c7:409f:4a21/80
ffee:032c::87d3:302b:34c6:409f:4a21/80
ffee:032c:0:87d3:302b:34c6:409f:4a22/80
141.132.64.20/24
141.131.64.20/24
141.132.63.20/24
141.132.64.220/24
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Decide on the /<number> value that will ensure the 3 machines
are on the same IP network. - There may be more than one.
CIDR this!
bba3::41c4:3a7b:62f7:5e13
bba3::3e46:7bb5
bba3:0:0:0:0:6be4:7f49:5d1c
141.132.79.10
141.132.79.132
141.132.79.28
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VirtualBox will provide the platform to run:
Linux (Ubuntu)
Windows (XP)

Important number systems for networking are:
Binary (base 2), valid digits 0 & 1
Decimal (base 10), valid digits 0,1,2.......9
Hexadecimal (base 16), valid digits 0,1,2.....9,A,B...F

The current Internet uses IPv4 addressing.
IPv4 addresses are exhausted.
Summary
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IPv4
32 bit addresses expressed as 4 decimal octets
eg 141.132.64.2

IPv6
128 bit addresses expressed as 32 hexadecimal digits.
Sets of 16 bits are separated by a colon.
eg. ffee:0032:0000:87d4:320a:32c6:409f:125d
where each hex digit represents 4 bits of the IPv6 address.
Summary
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How do computers do this?
Behind the scenes the subnet mask

How do you set up IP networking?
In Windows
In Linux
Next week?