Diode

Applications
CHAPTER 2
OBJECTIVES
Understand the diode Load-line analysis
Analyse Series, Parallel and Series-Parallel
diode networks
Understand Rectification Process

Prediction of the output response of
Clipper and Clamper diode circuits

Analysis of the Zener Regulator diode
Load Line Analysis
The load line plots all possible current (I
D
) conditions for all
voltages applied to the diode (V
D
) in a given circuit. E/R is the
maximum I
D
and E is the maximum V
D
.
Where the load line and the characteristic curve intersect is the Q
point, which specifies a particular I
D
and V
D
for a given circuit.

Diode in DC Series Circuit:
Forward Bias
The diode is forward biased, using Kirchoffs Law :
V
R
= E V
D

I
D
= I
R
= V
R
/R
Plotting the Load line
Using Kirchoffs Law :

Set V
D
= 0V


Set I
D
= 0A


Plot the two points and obtain V
DQ
, I
DQ
from the graph
intersection ( Q-point)


R I V E
D D

R
E
I
D

E V
D

For the series diode configuration below, employing the diode
characteristics of figure below, determine V
DQ
, I
DQ
and V
R
.
6
Example
Step1: Find the maximum I
D
for V
D
= 0V I
D
= E/R
Step 2: Find the maximum V
D
for I
D
= 0A V
D
= E
Step 3: Plot the load line
Step 4 : Find the intersection between the load line and the
characteristic curve. This is the Q-point
7
Solution
R
E
I
D

k
V
1
10
mA 10
E V
D

V V
D
0
V 10
V I
D
0
Determine I
D
, V
D2
and V
o
for the circuit.
Remember, the combination of
short circuit in series with an
open circuit always results in
an open circuit and I
D
=0A.
Example
Determine I, V
1
, V
2
and V
o
Example
Series Parallel Configurations
Solve this circuit like any Series/Parallel
circuit, knowing V
D
= 0.7V (or up to 0.7V) in
forward bias and as an open in reverse bias.
V
D1
= V
D2
= Vo =0 .7V
V
R
= 9.3V
Diodes in parallel are used to limit current:
I
R
= E V
D
= 10V -0 .7V = 28mA
R 0.33k
I
D1
= I
D2
= 28mA/2 = 14mA
Determine the resistance R

for the network when
I=200mA.
Example
Si
Si
Determine the currents I
1
, I
2
, and I
D2
for the network
Example
Diodes in AC Circuits
Inputs: -Sinusoidal waveform
-Square wave

This circuit is called half-wave rectifier, which generate
waveform v
o
that will have an average value of particular
use in the ac-to-dc conversion process.

The diode only conducts when it is in forward bias,
therefore only half of the AC cycle passes through the
diode.
Half-Wave Rectification
The diode that employed in the rectification process is typically
referred to rectifier.
The diode only conducts for one-half of the AC cycle. The remaining
half is either all positive or all negative. This is a crude AC to DC
conversion.
The DC Voltage out of the diode :
V
dc
= 0.318V
m

where V
m
= the peak voltage

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
Because the diode is only forward biased for one-half of the
AC cycle, it is then also off for one-half of the AC cycle. It is
important that the reverse breakdown voltage rating of the
diode be high enough to withstand the peak AC voltage.

PIV (PRV) V
m


PIV = Peak Inverse Voltage; PRV = Peak Reverse Voltage
V
m
= Peak AC Voltage


Full-Wave Rectification:
Bridge Network
The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be
improved 100% using a process called full-wave
rectification.
The most familiar network is bridge configuration with 4
diodes.
V
dc
= 0.636 V
m
Operation of the Bridge Rectifier
Circuit
For the positive half of the AC cycle:
For the negative half of the AC cycle:
Determining V
o
for silicon diodes in the bridge
configuration
The effect of using a silicon diode with V
D
=0.7 is
demonstrated in below figure. The dc level has change to:
Determine the output waveform for the network below and
calculate the output dc level.
Example
Conduction path for the +ve region
Solution
Conduction path for the -ve region
Solution
Full-Wave Rectification:
Center-Tapped Transformer
A second popular full-wave rectifier with only two diodes but
requiring a center-tapped transformer to establish the input
signal across each section of the secondary of the transformer.
Two diodes and a center-tapped transformer are required.

V
DC
= 0.636(V
m
) for ideal diode

Note that V
m
here is the transformer secondary voltage to the tap.
Operation of the CenterTapped Transformer
Rectifier Circuit
For the positive half of the AC cycle
During the positive cycle of v
i
applied to the primary of the
Transformer the network will appear as shown in figure. D
1
assumes the short-circuit equivalent and D
2
the open-circuit
equivalent, as determined by the secondary voltages and the
resulting current directions.
For the negative half of the AC cycle
During the negative cycle of v
i
, reversing the roles of the diodes
(D
2
is short-circuit) but maintaining the same polarity for the
voltage across the load resistor R.


Show the voltage waveform across the secondary winding
and across R when an input sinusoidal is applied to the
primary winding.
Example


The transformer turns ratio:
n = Nsec/Npri= 0.5
The total peak secondary voltage
is,V
p
(sec) = nV
p
(pri)
= 0.5(100)=50V
There is a 25 V peak across each
of the secondary with respect to
ground.
Solution
Note: V
m
= peak of the Secondary AC voltage. Be careful, in the
center tapped transformer rectifier circuit the peak AC voltage is
the transformer secondary voltage to the tap which is Vp(sec)/2.
Rectifier Circuit Summary
Rectifier Ideal Diode: Practical Diode: PIV / PRV
Half Wave
Rectifier
0.318Vm 0.318(Vm - 0.7V) Vm
Bridge Rectifier 0.636Vm 0.636(Vm 2 0.7V) Vm
Center-Tapped
Transformer
Rectifier
0.636Vm 0.636(Vm - 0.7V) 2 Vm

Clippers
Clippers or diode limiting is a diode network that have the
ability to clip(cut short/crop) off a portion on the input
signal without distorting the remaining part of the
alternating waveform.
Clippers are used to eliminate amplitude noise or to
fabricate new waveforms from an existing signal.
Simplest form of diode clipper- one resistor and a diode
Depending on the orientation of the diode, the positive or
negative region of the applied signal is clipped off.
2 general of clippers:
a) Series clippers
b) Parallel clippers
Series Clippers
The series configuration is defined as one where the diode is in
series with the load.
A half-wave rectifier is the simplest form of diode -clipper-one
resistor and diode.
Parallel Clippers
The parallel configuration has the diode in a branch parallel to
the load.


Series Clipper
Diodes clip a portion of the AC wave.
The diode clips any voltage that does not put it in forward
bias. That would be a reverse biasing polarity and a voltage
less than 0.7V for a silicon diode.


Any type of signals can
be applied to a clipper
Analysis steps for series clippers
There is no general procedure for analyzing series clippers
network but there are some things one can do to give the
analysis some direction.
1. Take careful note of where the output voltage is defined.
2. Try to develop an overall sense of the response by simply
noting the pressure established by each supply and the
effect it will have on the conventional current direction
through the diode.
3. Determine the applied voltage (transition voltage) that will
result in a change of state for the diode from the off to the
on state.
4. It is often helpful to draw the output waveform directly
below the applied voltage using the same scales for the
horizontal axis and the vertical axis.
Series clipper with dc supply
By adding a DC source to the circuit, the voltage required
to forward bias the diode can be changed.
Series clipper example
Positive region of V
i
- turn the diode ON.
Negative region of V
i
- turn the diode OFF.
V
i
> V to turn ON the diode.
In general, diode is open circuit (OFF state) and short circuit (ON state)
For V
i
> V the V
o
= V
i
V
For V
i
= V the V
o
= 0 V
Example 1
Determine the output waveform for the network below:
Solution (continued)
Repeat previous example for the square-wave input.
Example 2
Solution (continued):
- ve region OFF state
Parallel Clipper
By taking the output across the diode, the output is now the
voltage when the diode is not conducting.
A DC source can also be added to change the diodes required
forward bias voltage.


Parallel clipper example
Determine the Vo and sketch the output waveform for the
below network
Example 2
Solution
Solution (continued)
Solution (continued)
Repeat the previous example using a silicon diode with
V
D
=0.7 V
Example 2
Solution
For input voltages greater than 3.3 V the diode open
circuit and Vo=Vi.
For input voltages less than 3.3 V the diode short circuit
and the network result as shown below
Solution (continued)
Series Clippers (Ideal Diode) Summary
Parallel Clippers (Ideal Diode) Summary
Clampers
A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, resistor,
and a capacitor that shifts a waveform to a different dc
level without changing the appearance of the applied
signal.
Clamping networks have a capacitor connected directly
from input to output, with a resistive element in parallel
with the output signal. The diode is also in parallel with
the output signal but may or may not have a series dc
supply as an added element.
A diode in conjunction with a capacitor can be used to clamp
an AC signal to a specific DC level.
The input signal can be any type of waveform:
- sine, square, triangle wave, etc.
You can adjust the DC camping level with a DC source.



Element of the clamper circuit
Magnitude of R and C must be
appropriate to ensure =RC
where the time constant is
large enough and capacitor
may not discharge during the
time interval while diode is not
conducting.
We will assume that all
practical purposes the diode
will fully charge or discharge
in 5 time constant.

There is a sequence of steps that can be applied to
help make the analysis straight forward.
1. Start the analysis by examining the response of the
portion of the input signal that will forward bias the
diode. If the diode is reverse bias, skip the analysis for
that interval time, and start analysis for the next interval
time.
2. During the period that the diode is in the on state,
assume that the capacitor will charge up instantaneously
to a voltage level determined by the surrounding
network.
3. Assume that during the period when the diode is in the
off state the capacitor holds on to its established
voltage level.
4. Throughout the analysis, maintain a continual awareness
of the location and defined polarity for v
o
to ensure that
the proper levels are obtained.
5. Check that the total swing of the output matches that off
the input.

Start with the negative input voltages as stated in step1:
The negative input voltage will increase from zero to -10V,
once the voltage exceeds -10V the diode begins to conduct, all
voltages beyond -10V will be clamped at -10V the remaining
-10V of the -20V input voltage charges the capacitor. Back at 0V
the capacitor has a charge of 10V; as Vi is increased from 0V to
+20V the voltage across R becomes (10V + Vi) until it reaches a
value of +30V
Clampers example
Clampers Summary
Determine V
o
for the below network.
Example
Solution
f=1000Hz, so a period of 1ms or
interval 0.5ms between each level.

Define the period that the diode is
start to conduct (t
1
~t
2
), which is
the V
0
=5V.

Determine V
C
from the Kirchoffs
Law
V
C
=20V+5V=25V

When in the positive input, we will
find V
0
=35V(outside loop)

Time constant, =RC = 10ms,
total discharge time = 50ms
where is large enough before the
capacitor is discharge during
interval t
2
~t
3
Output waveform
Zener Diodes

The zener diode is a special type of
diodes that is designed to work in the
reverse breakdown region.

But it also can operate in the forward bias
region.

Zener diode is a main component to
design voltage regulator circuit for DC
power supply.

Zener Diode
The state of the diode must be determined followed by a
substitution of the appropriate model and a determination of
the unknown quantities of the network. For the off state as a
defined by a voltage less than Vz but greater than 0V. The
Zener equivalent is the open circuit.
Zener Diode Characteristics


1. Vi and R Fixed
The applied dc voltage is fixed, as the load resistor.
The analysis :
1. Determine the state of the Zener diode by removing it
from the network and calculating the voltage across the
resulting open circuit.
2. Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and solve for
the desired unknowns.
- For the on state diode, the voltages across parallel
elements must be the same.
V
L
V
Z
The Zener diode current is determined by KCL:
I
Z
= I
R
I
L
The power dissipated by the Zener diode is determined by:
P
Z
= V
Z
I
Z

- For the off state diode, the equivalent circuit is open-
circuit.
2.Fixed V
i
, Variable R
L
Due to the offset voltage V
z
, there is a specific range of
resistor values (and therefore load current) which will ensure
that the Zener is in the on state.
Too small R
L
V
L
< V
z
Zener diode will be in the off state
To determine the min RL that will turn the Zener diode on :


Any load resistance value greater than the R
L
min will ensure
that the Zener diode is in the on state and the diode can be
replaced by its V
z
source equivalent.
The max I
L



Note: means :leads to

Once the diode is in the on state, the voltage across R
remains fixed at:





I
z
is limited to I
ZM
as provided on the data sheet, it does
affect the range of R
L
and therefore I
L
.
Example
a) Determine V
L
, V
R
, I
Z
and P
Z
in the
network below.
b) Repeat part (a) with R
L
=3 k





V
Z
=10 V
+
-
R
L
Vi
R=1 k ohm
V
L
+
-
P
ZM
=30 mW
I
Z
1.2 kohm
V
R
+
-
3.Fixed R
L
, Variable V
i
For fixed values of R
L
, the voltage V
i
must be sufficiently
large to turn the Zener diode on. The min turn-on voltage
V
i
=V
i

min
:




The max value of Vi is limited by the max Zener current I
ZM
.
I
Rmax
=I
ZM
+I
L

Since I
L
is fixed at V
Z
/R
L
and I
ZM
is the max value of I
Z
, the
max V
i
is defined by:
V
i

max
=V
Rmax
+V
z

V
i

max
=I
Rmax
R+V
z




Solution:

Step 1: Remove zener diode & obtained
the zener state




V
+
-
R
L
Vi=16 V
R=1 k ohm
V
L
+
-
I
Z
1.2 kohm
I
R
Solution
W 0 VzIz Pz
0A Iz
7.27V 8.73 - 16 V - Vi V
8.73V V V
cct) (open state OFF is diode Vz V
V 73 . 8
k 2 . 1 k 1
16 k 2 . 1
R R
Vi R
V
L R
L
L
L
Determine the network to find the range of R
L
and I
L
to
maintained V
RL
at 10V.
Example
Solution:
Diode Applications

Rectifier Circuits
Conversions of AC to DC for DC operated circuits
Battery Charging Circuits

Simple Diode Circuits
Protective Circuits against Over-current
Polarity Reversal Currents caused by an inductive
kick in a relay circuit

Zener Circuits
Overvoltage Protection
Setting Reference Voltages