AIR QUALITY :

DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTICS, AND

PERSPECTIVES

CONTENT
Definitions
Unit Measurement
Source of Pollutants
Classification of Pollutants
Particulates
Hydrocarbons
CO
Oxides of Sulfur
Oxides of Nitrogen
Photochemical Oxidants
Indoor Air Pollution
Global Implications of Air Pollution

AIR POLLUTION



Presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more air contaminant (i.e dust,
fumes, gas, mist, odor, smoke or vapor) in sufficient quantities, of such
characteristics and of such duration as to be or to threaten to be injuries to
human, plant or animal life or to property or which reasonably interferes the
comfortable enjoyment of life or property

DEFINITION
Suspended particulates- mass per unit volume basis (g/m
3
)
Gaseous contaminants ppm/ppb
For gases, ppm convert to g/m
3



mol L
x mass gmol x ppm
m
g
/
10
3
3

Standard condition for many chemical reaction:

T1 = 273 K (0C)
P1 = 1 atm (760 mmHg)
V1 = 22.4 L/mol

While T2,P2,V2 relate to actual conditions being considered.

*But most air quality determinations are referenced at 25C, 760 mmHg


2
2 2
1
1 1
T
V P
T
V P

UNIT MEASUREMENT
SOURCE OF POLLUTANTS
Natural sources
Fungi spores, salt spray, smoke from contaminant,
dust particles from forest fires and volcanic
eruptions
CO from the breakdown of methane
Hydrocarbons from pine trees
H2S and CH4 from the anaerobic decomposition of
organic matter
SOURCE OF POLLUTANTS CONTD
Mobile transportation
Stationary combustion
Industrial processes
Solid-waste disposal

SOURCE OF POLLUTANTS CONTD
Mobile transportation
Stationary combustion
Residential
Commercial
Industrial power and
heating including
steam-powered electric
power plant

SOURCE OF POLLUTANTS CONTD
SOURCE OF POLLUTANTS CONTD
Industrial Processes
Chemical
Metallurgical
Pulp-paper industries
Petroleum refineries

SOURCE OF POLLUTANTS CONTD
Solid waste Disposal
Household
Commercial refuse
Coal refuse
Agricultural burning
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANT
Origin
Considered as primary or secondary
contaminants
Primary found in the form of which omitted
(SOx, NOx and HC)
Secondary formed in atm by photochemical
reaction or hydrolysis or oxidation (ozone &
peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) )

CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANT CONT
Chemical composition
Organic or inorganic
Organic contain C, H and other elements such as
O2, N2, Ph & S, carboxylic acids, alcohols, ethers,
esters, amines etc
Inorganic CO, CO2, carbonates, SO, NO, ozone,
HF, HCl

State of matter
Either particulate or gaseous
Particulate dust, fumes, smoke, fly ash
Gaseous behave much as air, CO, SO, NO, HC

CLASSIFICATION OF
POLLUTANTS
Oxides of sulphur
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbon
Particulate
Indoor Air Pollution
Oxides of nitrogen
Photochemical
oxidants
PARTICULATES

Identified as any dispersed matter, solid or
liquid, in which the individual aggregates are
<500m but larger than small molecule
3 classification physical, chemical or
biological

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Size
Particle of major interest in air pollution studies range from 0.01 to
100 micron
Ex: metallurgical fumes, cement dust, fly ash, carbon black,
sulfuric acid mist, smoke

Mode of formation
Dust
-small, solid particles
-created by the breakup of larger masses through processes such
as crushing, grinding or blast
-may come directly from the processing or handling or materials
such as coal, cement or grains
-by product of mechanical process sawing of wood
-residue of mechanical operation sandblasting
-do not diffuse settle by gravity
-diameter range-1.0 to 10000 micron
Smoke
-fine, solid particles
-resulting from the incomplete combustion of organic
particles coal, wood or tobacco
-consist of mainly C & combustible materials
-diameter range 0.5 to 1 micron

Fumes
-Fine, solid particles
-Formed by the condensation of vapors of solid material
-May come from sublimation, distillation, calcination or
molten metal processes
-Diameter range 0.03 to 0.3 micron
-Flocculate and coalesce settle out

Fly ash
-Finely divided, noncombustible particles
-Contained in flue gases from combustion of coal
-Particles range 1.0 to 1000 micron like dust
-Results from burning like smoke
-Consist of inorganic metallic or mineral substances like fumes

Mist
-Liquid particles or droplets
-Formed by the condensation of a vapor, dispersion of liq or
enactment of chemical reaction
-Less than 10 micron in diameter
-High conc of mist -fog


Spray
-Liquid particles
-Formed by the atomization of parent liquids, such as
pesticides and herbicides
-Particle range 10 to 1000 micron in diameter

Settling properties
Is the major natural self-cleansing process
Suspended particulates size less than 1 to
20 micron
Settleable particulates larger than 10
micron

18
) (
2
p w p
t
d g
v

Optical qualities
Cause reduction in visibility
Affected by particles in range of visible light
(0.38 to 0.76 micron)
Affected by particle shape, surface
characteristics, distribution of particles
Chemical characteristics
Contain both organic and inorganic components
Organic phenols, organic acids, alcohols
Inorganic nitrates, sulfates, metals (iron, lead,
manganese, zinc and vanadium)

Biological characteristics
Include protozoa, bacteria, viruses, fungi,
spores, pollens and algae
Microorganisms survive for short time in atm
lack of nutrients and ultraviolet radiation
from sun
Certain bacteria and fungi can survive for
long periods



Effect of particulates

On human health
At high conc, poses hazards to those susceptible to
respiratory illness
Human respiratory system defend itself against
invasion of foreign substances as indicated in Table
7-8 pg 437
The success or failure of respiratory defense
system depends on size of particulates inhaled and
depth of penetration
40% of 1 - 2 micron particles retain in bronchioles
and alveoli
0.25 to 1 micron breathed in and out
Particles below 0.25 micron results in
impingement

Lead
Human exposure originate from inhalation and
ingestion of lead containing particulates
Affect reproductive, endocrine, hepatic etc
Acute lead poisoning-vomiting, colic, insomnia,
irritability
Chronic lead poisoning headache, weakness

Aeroallergens
-Refer to airborne substances causing allergies
-Common allergens pollen and spores
-Others of biological origin yeasts, molds, animal fur,
feathers and hair

Effects on Plants and animals
Little damage if deposited on a leaf surface
Reduce photosynthesis, hence plant growth

Effects on Materials
Soiling clothing and textiles
Corroding metals (at RH above 75%)
Eroding building surfaces
Discoloring and destroying painted surfaces

Organic compounds containing C and H only
Aliphatic hydrocarbon:
Alkanes: saturated HC ( ex: methane), generally not active in
atmospheric photochemical reaction
Alkenes/olefins : unsaturated, highly reactive in atmospheric
photochemistry
Alkynes : highly reactive, rare, not major concern

Aromatic HC
Biochemically and biologically active
Some are potentially carcinogenic
Concern ~ polynuclear group of aromatic HC because some of these
compounds have been shown to be carcinogenic ~ lung cancer


Sources
-Natural
Biological sources
Geothermal areas
Coal fields
NG from petroleum fields
Natural fires
Plants & trees
-Anthropogenic
Industrial sources
Transportation
Solid waste disposal
Forest fires
etc
HYDROCARBON
CARBON MONOXIDE
Colourless, tasteless, odourless
If high concentration ~ affect human,
vegetation & material
Refer to table 7.11 page 445
Sources
Natural ~ vegetation decay
~ human metabolism ( a resting person-
1 ppm CO)
Anthropogenic ~ transportation
~ fuel combustion in stationary
sources
~ industrial processes
~solid waste disposal

SO
X
(OXIDE OF SULPHUR)
6 gaseous compounds
Sulphur monoxide (SO)
Sulphur dioxide (SO
2
)
Sulphur trioxide (SO
3
)
Sulphur tetraoxide (SO
4
)
Sulphur sesquioxide (S
2
O
3
)
Sulphur heptoxide (S
2
O
7
)
SO
2
Colourless, nonflammable, nonexplosive, suffocating odour,
stable in athmosphere, highly soluble in water
Source: Oil & gas industry, energy production, coal burning,
industrial combustion & industrial processes
Effect : Human: aggravates asthmatic & bronchitis
Plants: damage vegetation
Transport~1000 km

NO
X
( OXIDES OF NITROGEN)
6 gaseous compounds
Nitric oxide ( NO)
Nitrogen dioxide ( NO
2
)
Nitrous oxide ( N
2
O)
Nitrogen sesquioxide ( N
2
O
3
)
Nitrogen tetroxide ( N
2
O
4
)
Nitrogen pentoxide ( N
2
O
5
)
NO
2
Cause respiratory illness
Source Transport, power generation & industrial
combustion
Readily soluble in water~ nitrous acid or nitric oxide


PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS
Photochemical oxidants indicate the net oxidizing ability of
ambient air
0
3
, 0, 0
2
, PAN, PPN, H
2
O
2
eg f oxidants
Effects of Oxidants
On human health coughing, shortness of breath, airway constriction,
heachace etc, exposure to high level of ozone result to damage chromosomes
Effects of plants major oxidant cause damage to plant is O3 and PAN as
both enter the plan leaf thru stomata and intefere plant cell metabolism,
exposure level of 0.01 0.15 ppm will reduce crop yeilds (soybeans, corn,
radishes)
Effects on materials O3 oxidizes paint, elastomers, textile fibres and dyes
Source of oxidants
Produced in upper atmosphere by solar radiation, lightning and forest fires



INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

Originated from building materials,
furnishings, equipment and such human
activities as cooking, cleaning and smoking

SUMMARY OF DETECTIONS AND STANDARD &
CONTROL
Pollutants Source Detections Standard & Control
Hydrocarbon :
Aliphatic HC
(contain
alkanes,
alkenes and
alkynes) and
Aromatic HC
-Natural source are
from biological sources
plant and tree
-Anthropogenic
industrial refineries,
transportation
Gas chromatography S-160 g/m
3

C-
incineration,adsorption,
absorption,
condensation
Carbon
monoxide
Decaying vegetation-
oxidation of methane
-human metabolism
-transportation,solid-
waste disposal, forest
fires
Nondispersiveinfrared
(NDIR), gas
chromatography,
catalytic conversion,
flame ionization
detection
S-10 mg/m
3
(8 hr)and 40
mg/m
3
(1 hr)
C-adsorption, abs,
condensation,
combustion
Oxides of sulfur
SO2 and SO3
Burning of solid and
fossil fuel, industrial
processes
Colorimetric,
conductometric,
coulometric,
spectroscopic
S-6 to 10 g/m
3
for 24 hr
average
C-burning fuel with less
sulfur, dispersion by tall
stacks, remove sulfur
from fuel


-

SUMMARY OF DETECTIONS AND STANDARD &
CONTROL
Pollutants Source Detections Standard &
Control
Oxides of nitrogen
NO and NO2
-Natural source are
solar radiation,
lightning
-Anthropogenic
fuel combustion,
transportation
Calorimetric method,
ultraviolet
spectrophotometry,
electrical tranducers
S-100 g/m
3

C-modification
of combustion
conditions,
devices to
remove NOX
from exhaust
Photochemical
oxidants ozone,
PAN, H2O2
Solar radiation,
lightning
-,ultraviolet
photometry
-gas chromatography
(PAN)
S-240 g/m
3

(1hr)and 40
mg/m
3
(1 hr)
GLOBAL IMPLICATION OF AIR POLLUTION
-Results gaseous emissions of sulfur oxides (SO
x
) and nitrogen oxides
(NO
X
) + water vapour + sunlight strong acidic
compounds
(i.e H
2
SO
4
& HNO
3
)
- H
2
SO
4
& HNO
3
+ other organic & inorganic chemicals are deposited on
the earth as:
i) Dry deposition : aerosol & particulates
ii)Wet deposition: raindrops, snowflakes , fog or dew
-Effect of acid rain deposit vary
i) sensitivity of ecosystem
ii) damage to building & monuments in highly industrialized areas
O
3
reduces UV radiation that reaches earths surface
O
3
layer deplete from O
3
reaction with Cl
2
- CFC (use as
aerosol spray propellants)
Industrialized nation banned the use of fluoroC




CO
2
increase O
2
decreases
Increase in CO
2
:
Fossil fuel consumption
Agricultural
Forestry
Land use practices
Continued build up melt Artic ice pack
Cold countries ~a green house usually built a glass~ used to grow
plants & flowers that require plenty of warmth
Sunshine thru glass ~ inside of the greenhouse( very warm)~ roof
and walls keep heat from escaping
Earths T increase even 1C experience change in :
Weather patterns
Flooding
Rising sea-level
Glaciers melt
But industrial gases i.e CO2, CH4, Nox, CFC ~ trap a certain kind of
radiation ( infrared) ~ heat ~ keep it close to earths surface

Malaysian Air Pollution Index (MAPI) ~ measures level of criteria air pollution
May occur as a result of :
Natural causes
Mans activities
Natural pollutants:
Soil dust
Volcanic eruption
Salt splashes from the sea
Man made pollutants:
Smoke & wastes from fuel burning
Wastes from industrial processes
HC from combustion processes
Normal local & foreign sources:
Motor vehicles
Industrial operation
Open burning
Land clearing & construction
Deforestation
Ashes from volcanic eruption