Saryono

Jenderal Soedirman University

Biokimia Hormon
What is endocrinology?

Endocrinology =
Intercellular Chemical Communication
Endocrinology is about communication
systems & information transfer.

Endocrine System and Homeostasis
Homeostasis


Methods of Cell-to-Cell
Communication
Direct
cytoplasmic
transfer of
electrical
and
chemical
signals
Long-distance
communication
Local chemical
communication
Electrical Chemical
A given molecule
can function as a
signal by more
than one method
Gap junctions
or
Plasmodesmata
Autocrines Paracrines
http://biology.dbs.umt.edu/biol101/lecture/Westphal/westphal_chapter11.ppt
Signals
In large animals, signals reach targets via diffusion as
autocrine or paracrine signals when the target is close.
Autocrine signals are signals generated by the same cells
upon which they act.
Contoh: sel kanker sering menggunakan autokrin untuk
mengontrol/membunuh perkembangan sel normal
Paracrine signals diffuse to and affect nearby cells.
Contoh: interleukin yang dihasilkan pada reaksi
peradangan
Endocrine signals When the target is distant, signals travel
by circulation in the blood e.g hormones like insulin, sex
hormones
Paracrine Signaling by Local
Regulators
In paracrine signaling, nonhormonal chemical signals
called local regulators elicit responses in nearby target
cells
Types of local regulators:
Neurotransmitters
Cytokines and growth factors
Prostaglandins help regulate aggregation of platelets,
an early step in formation of blood clots
Local Signaling
Autocrine signaling
Paracrine
signaling
Figure 15.1 Chemical Signaling Systems (Part 1)
Figure 15.1 Chemical Signaling Systems (Part 2)
ES anatomy basics
A. Exocrine gland
Ducts
Lumen and
surfaces

B. Endocrine gland
Chemical
messengers
Blood stream

What is a hormone?
A molecule that functions as a message within an
organism; its only function is to convey information.
Because of this function, physical descriptions of a
chemical thought to be a hormone are not adequate to
indicate the molecule's physiological role.
A molecule is a hormone only when described in the
context of its role in a biological communication system.
Definition of a hormone requires testing of that molecule in
a biological response system, running a bioassay.
Ultimately, the existence of endocrinology is dependent on
the existence & use of bioassays. (This is also true for
pharmacology & toxicology.)
What are endocrine systems for?
Endocrine Functions
Maintain Internal Homeostasis
Support Cell Growth
Coordinate Development
Coordinate Reproduction
Facilitate Responses to External Stimuli
Energy Metabolism
What are the elements of an endocrine
system?
Sender = Sending Cell
Signal = Hormone
Nondestructive Medium = Serum & Hormone Binders
Selective Receiver = Receptor Protein
Transducer = Transducer Proteins & 2 Messengers
Amplifier = Transducer/Effector Enzymes
Effector = Effector Proteins
Response = Cellular Response (2 Hormones)
Signaling by any of these hormones involves three key
events:
Receptor
Signal transduction
Response
What is a hormone receptor?
Hormone Receptors are cellular proteins
that bind with high affinity to hormones &
are altered in shape & function by
binding; they exist in limited numbers.

Binding to hormone is noncovalent &
reversible.

Hormone binding will alter binding to
other cellular proteins & may activate any
receptor protein enzyme actions.
What are the main types of receptors?
Membrane Receptors
Imbedded in target cell membrane; integral proteins/
glycoproteins; penetrate through membrane

For protein & charged hormones (peptides or
neurotransmitters)

3 major groups: Serpentine = 7 transmembrane
domains, Growth factor/cytokine = 1 transmembrane
domain, Ion channels

Nuclear Receptors
Nuclear proteins that usually act in pairs & bind to
specific Hormone Recognition Elements (HREs) =
sequences on the DNA in the promoter regions of
target genes

For small, hydrophobic molecules (steroids, thyroid
hormones)
What are transducers?
Transducers are proteins that convert the
information in hormonal signals into chemical
signals understood by cellular machinery.
They change their shape & activity when they
interact directly with protein-hormone complexes.
Usually enzymes or nucleotide binding proteins,
they produce 2
nd
messengers, or change the
activity of other proteins by covalently modifying
them (adding or removing phosphate, lipid groups,
acetate, or methyl groups), or they interact with
other proteins that do these things.
They begin amplifying the energy content of the
original hormone signals.
How many kinds of
transducers are there?
What are effectors?
Effectors are the enzymes & other
proteins that convert the transduced
hormonal signal into biochemical
changes that generate the cellular
response to hormone binding.
Usually amplify the signal further &
allow cellular work to be done: cell
motion, growth, division, altered
metabolism, secretion,
depolarization, etc.
Hormones
Chemical messenger
Secreted by endocrine
gland
Specific to target
Activate cellular
change
Of 4 different chemical
types
Common Characteristics of Hormones
04.12.8 25
They occur and function at very low concentrations
10
-6
to 10
-12
M
Deliberately unstable levels rise rapidly upon
secretion, but fall fast when it stops
Biochemical response may be very rapid, by altering
existing enzyme activities, or slower, where gene
expression levels change
Act through two receptor types: cell surface and
nuclear
Display remarkable specificity
Operate through the cascade principle
What kinds of hormone are there?
Known Hormonal Classes
Proteins & peptides
Lipids (steroids, eicosanoids)
Amino acid derived
(thyronines, neurotransmitters)
Gases (NO, CO)

chemcases.com/olestra/
images/insulin.jpg
chem.pdx.edu/~wamserc/
ChemWorkshops/ gifs/W25_1.gif
website.lineone.net/~dave.cushman/
epinephrine.gif
Kinds of Hormones
27
Occur as four major classes (and several minor ones)
Peptide hormones: tiny proteins from 3-200 aas, water-
soluble, active only after cleavage of the targeting pre-
sequence and the inactive prohormone (insulin, glucagon)
Catecholamine hormones: derived from tyrosine, water-
soluble, many are neurotransmitters (epinephrine)
Eicosanoids: derived from arachidonate, minimally water-
soluble, act locally (rather than through the bloodstream),
mediate pain, inflammation, and smooth muscle contraction
Steroid hormones: derived from cholesterol, fat-soluble, are
carried to targets by carrier proteins
Tropic hormones-
stimulate the production
and secretion of hormones
by other endocrine glands;
Tropic hormones,
hormones that regulate
endocrine organs
ex. TSH
Nontropic hormones-
stimulates cellular growth,
metabolism, or other
functions; ex. thyroxine
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
The anterior pituitary produces both tropic and
nontropic hormones
Tropic Hormones
The four strictly tropic hormones are
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Each tropic hormone acts on its target endocrine tissue
to stimulate release of hormone(s) with direct
metabolic or developmental effects
Hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary
Control by hypothalamus
Pituitary gonadotropins
in blood
FSH LH
FSH
LH
GnRH
Inhibited by combination of
estrogen and progesterone
Inhibited by low levels of
estrogen
Stimulated by high levels
of estrogen
LH surge triggers
ovulation
FSH and LH stimulate
follicle to grow
Mature
follicle
Growing follicle
Ovarian cycle
Corpus
luteum
Degenerating
corpus luteum
Follicular phase Ovulation Luteal phase
Progesterone and
estrogen secreted
by corpus luteum
Estrogen secreted
by growing follicle in
increasing amounts
Progesterone and estro-
gen promote thickening
of endometrium
Peak causes
LH surge
Ovarian hormones
in blood
Estrogen level
very low
Progesterone
Estrogen
Endometrium
Uterine (menstrual) cycle
Menstrual flow phase Proliferative phase Secretory phase
D
a
y
s

28 25 20 15 14 10 5 0
Nontropic Hormones
Nontropic hormones produced by the anterior pituitary:
Prolactin stimulates lactation in mammals but has
diverse effects in different vertebrates
MSH influences skin pigmentation in some
vertebrates and fat metabolism in mammals
Endorphins inhibit pain
Protein/Peptide Hormones
Hydrophilic
Large
Can't fit through membrane
Second messenger mechanism of action
Most hormones
Received by receptors external to the cell membrane
Endocrine organs
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid gland
Adrenal medulla
Pituitary gland
pancreas
Example: Insulin
Steroid Hormones
Small
Hydrophobic/Lipophilic
Travel in blood withcarrier
Cytoplasmic or nuclear receptors
change protein synthesis
Endocrine organs
Adrenal cortex
Ovaries
Testes
placenta
Example: estradiol

Amine
Synthesized from a
single amino acid
Melatonin from
tryptophan
Thyroid hormone from
tyrosine
Catecholamines (EPI,
DA) from tyrosine

Eicosanoid
Produced from 20-carbon fatty
acid, arachadonic acid
Produced in all cells except
RBCs
2nd messenger
Prostaglandins and leukotrienes
inflammation
Major hormones of the Body
Polypeptides Glycoproteins Steroid-related Amines
ACTH
Angiotensin I & II
Calcitonin
Cholecystokinin
Glucagen
GH
Insulin
Somatomedin
MSH
Oxytocin
PTH
Prolactin
Vasopressin/ADH

FSH
HCG
LH
TSH
Aldosterone
Cortisol
1,25
dihydroxychole
calciferol
Estradiol
Progesterone
Retinoic acid
testosterone
Epinephrine
T3
T4
Mechanism of Hormone Action
Hormones produce one or more of the following cellular
changes in target cells
Alter plasma membrane permeability
Stimulate protein synthesis
Activate or deactivate enzyme systems
Induce secretory activity
Stimulate mitosis
Hormone + Receptor
Binding of a hormone to its receptor initiates a signal
transduction pathway leading to responses in the
cytoplasm or a change in gene expression
The same hormone may have different effects on
target cells that have
Different receptors for the hormone
Different signal transduction pathways
Different proteins for carrying out the response
Different signal-transduction pathways in
different cells can lead to different
responses to the same signal.
Different receptors different cell responses
Epinephrine
a receptor
Epinephrine
receptor
Epinephrine
receptor
Vessel
constricts
Vessel
dilates
Intestinal blood
vessel
Skeletal muscle
blood vessel
Liver cell
Different intracellular proteins different cell responses
Glycogen
deposits
Glycogen
breaks down
and glucose
is released
from cell
Hormone Actions
Lock and Key approach: describes the
interaction between the hormone and its specific
receptor.
Receptors for nonsteroid hormones are located on
the cell membrane
Receptors for steroid hormones are found in the
cells cytoplasm or in its nucleus
Hormone Actions
Steroid Hormones
Pass through the cell membrane
Binds to specific receptors
Then enters the nucleus to bind with the cells DNA
which then activates certain genes (Direct gene
activation).
mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and enters the
cytoplasm and promotes protein synthesis for:
Enzymes as catalysts
Tissue growth and repair
Regulate enzyme function
Hormone Actions
Nonsteroid Hormones
React with specific receptors outside the cell
This triggers an enzyme reaction with lead to the formation
of a second messenger (cAMP).
cAMP can produce specific intracellular functions:
Activates cell enzymes
Change in membrane permeability
Promote protein synthesis
Change in cell metabolism
Stimulation of cell secretions
Signal Transduction Pathway
Campbell; Fig. 11.5
Receptors are
located inside the
cell (nucleus or
cytosol), OR on the
cell membrane.
Amino Acid-Based Hormone Action:
cAMP Second Messenger
Hormone (first messenger) binds to its receptor, which
then binds to a G protein
The G protein is then activated as it binds GTP,
displacing GDP
Activated G protein activates the effector enzyme
adenylate cyclase
Adenylate cyclase generates cAMP (second
messenger) from ATP
cAMP activates protein kinases, which then cause
cellular effects
Amino Acid-Based Hormone Action:
cAMP Second Messenger
Figure 16.2a
Amino Acid-Based Hormone Action:
PIP-Calcium
Hormone binds to the receptor and
activates
G protein
G protein binds and activates a
phospholipase enzyme
Phospholipase splits the
phospholipid PIP
2
into diacylglycerol
(DAG) and IP
3
(both act as second
messengers)
DAG activates protein kinases; IP
3

triggers release of Ca
2+
stores
Ca
2+
(third messenger) alters
cellular responses
Figure 16.2b
Amino Acid-Based Hormone Action:
PIP-Calcium



Steroid Hormones
Steroid hormones and thyroid hormone diffuse
easily into their target cells
Once inside, they bind and activate a specific
intracellular receptor
The hormone-receptor complex travels to the
nucleus and binds a DNA-associated receptor
protein
This interaction prompts DNA transcription to
produce mRNA
The mRNA is translated into proteins, which bring
about a cellular effect
Figure 16..3
Steroid Hormones
Interaction of Hormones at Target Cells
Three types of hormone interaction
Permissiveness one hormone cannot exert its effects
without another hormone being present
Synergism more than one hormone produces the
same effects on a target cell
Antagonism one or more hormones opposes the
action of another hormone
Control of Hormone Release
Blood levels of hormones:
Are controlled by negative feedback systems
Vary only within a narrow desirable range
Hormones are synthesized and released in response to
humoral, neural, and hormonal stimuli

Endocrine System: Biochemistry, Secretion, and Transport of Hormones
Humoral Stimuli
Humoral stimuli secretion of hormones in direct
response to changing blood levels of ions and
nutrients
Example: concentration of calcium ions in the blood
Declining blood Ca
2+
concentration stimulates the
parathyroid glands to secrete PTH (parathyroid
hormone)
PTH causes Ca
2+
concentrations to rise and the
stimulus is removed
Humoral Stimuli
Figure 16.4a
Neural Stimuli
Neural stimuli nerve fibers
stimulate hormone release
Preganglionic sympathetic
nervous system (SNS) fibers
stimulate the adrenal
medulla to secrete
catecholamines
Figure 16.4b
Hormonal Stimuli
Hormonal stimuli release of hormones in response to
hormones produced by other endocrine organs
The hypothalamic hormones stimulate the anterior
pituitary
In turn, pituitary hormones stimulate targets to secrete
still more hormones
Hormonal Stimuli
Figure 16.4c
Where are Hormones Made ?
What is the classical
endocrine system?
We now know that
nearly every tissue
secretes chemical
signals that act as
hormones, heart,
immune cells,
stomach, intestines,
bone cells, liver, skin,
glial cells, etc.
Kelenjar akan melepaskan senywa kimia secara langsung ke dalam aliran
darah
Endocrine System: Overview
The hypothalamus has both neural functions and
releases hormones
Other tissues and organs that produce hormones
adipose cells, pockets of cells in the walls of the
small intestine, stomach, kidneys, and heart
Biosintesis hormon
Hormon
peptide
Biosintesis
hormon
Hormon
lipid
Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone
Thyroglobulin is synthesized and discharged into
the lumen
Iodides (I

) are actively taken into the cell, oxidized

to iodine (I
2
), and released into the lumen
Iodine attaches to tyrosine, mediated by peroxidase
enzymes, forming T
1
(monoiodotyrosine, or MIT),
and T
2
(diiodotyrosine, or DIT)
Iodinated tyrosines link together to form T
3
and T
4

Colloid is then endocytosed and combined with a
lysosome, where T
3
and T
4
are cleaved and diffuse
into the bloodstream
Figure 16.8
Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone
Nervous System Modulation
The nervous system modifies the stimulation of
endocrine glands and their negative feedback
mechanisms
The nervous system can override normal endocrine
controls
For example, control of blood glucose levels
Normally the endocrine system maintains blood glucose
Under stress, the body needs more glucose
The hypothalamus and the sympathetic nervous system are
activated to supply ample glucose
The H-P-A
Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis
Most feedback loops run through this axis
HPA mediates growth, metabolism, stress
response, reproduction.
is secondarily in charge of almost everything else.
p. 503
E. Hypothalamus (general)
Connection to
pituitary
Neuronal to
POSTERIOR
PITUITARY
Endocrine to
ANTERIOR
PITUITARY
RH = Pituitary releasing
hormones
RIH = Pituitary release
inhibiting hormones
Why is the Hypothalamus so
Important?
Secretes regulatory
homones
RH
RIH
"Directs" pituitary

STIMULUS
Hypothalamus
Releasing Hormone
(Release-Inhibiting Hormone)

Pituitary
Stimulating Hormone

Gland
Hormone
Target
Hypothalamic Hormomes
Release Inhibiting Hormones
Somatostatin
Prolactin release inhibiting hormone-PIH

Releasing Hormones
Thyrotropin releasing hormone-TRH
Growth hormone releasing hormone-GHRH
Negative Feedback
Negative feedback is the primary mechanism
through which your endocrine system maintains
homeostasis
Secretion of a specific hormone s turned on or off
by specific physiological changes (similar to a
thermostat)
EXAMPLE: plasma glucose levels and insulin
response
Number of Receptors
Down-regulation: is the decrease of hormone
receptors which decreases the sensitivity to that
hormone
Up-regulation: is the increase in the number of
receptors which causes the cell to be more
sensitive to a particular hormone
The Endocrine Glands and Their
Hormones
Pituitary Gland
A marble-sized gland at the base of the brain
Controlled by the hypothalamus or other neural
mechanisms and therefore the middle man.
Posterior Lobe
Antidiuretic hormone: responsible for fluid
retention
Oxytocin: contraction of the uterus
Estrogen Oxytocin
from
ovaries
from fetus
and mothers
posterior pituitary
Induces oxytocin
receptors on uterus
Stimulates uterus
to contract
Stimulates
placenta to make
Prostaglandins
Stimulate more
contractions
of uterus
P
o
s
i
t
i
v
e

f
e
e
d
b
a
c
k

INNER
MEDULLA
OUTER
MEDULLA
CORTEX
Osmolarity of
interstitial
fluid
(mosm/L)
NaCl
Urea
H
2
O
Active
transport
Passive
transport
300
300
300
100
100
400 200
H
2
O
H
2
O
H
2
O
H
2
O
H
2
O
H
2
O
600 400
900 700
1200
300
400
H
2
O
600
1200
1200
600
900
300
400
NaCl
NaCl
NaCl
NaCl
NaCl
NaCl
Urea
H
2
O
Urea
H
2
O
H
2
O
H
2
O
H
2
O
H
2
O
Mekanisme kerja ADH
Neurosecretory Cells
1. Specialized
neurons
Synthesize and
secrete hormones
2. Extend from
HYPOTHALAMUS
to POSTERIOR
PITUITARY


2. Neurosecretory cells in
Hypothalamus
Nuclei synthesize
and secrete
hormones
Neuronal connection
to POSTERIOR
pituitary
Antidiuretic Hormone
(ADH), Oxytocin


Posterior Pituitary Hormones
Manufactured in Hypothalamus, released from
Post. Pit.
Oxytocin
Target = smooth ms. Uterus and Breast (&brain)
Function = labor and delivery, milk ejection,(pair
bonding)
ADH (Vasopressin AVP)
Target = kidneys
Function = water reabsorption

The Endocrine Glands and their
Hormones
Pituitary Gland
Exercise appears to be a strong stimulant to the
hypothalamus for the release of all anterior pituitary
hormones
Anterior Lobe
Growth Hormone (GH)
- Dwarfism
- Gigantism & Acromegaly
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Gonadotropins (FSH, ICSH, LH)
Prolactin (PRL)
Melanocyte-stimulating Hormone (MSH)
hypothalamus
anterior pituitary
posterior pituitary
Acts on the liver, stimulating it to
release several polypeptide
hormones.
Stimulates amino acid uptake and
protein synthesis in target cells.
Ultimately stimulates cell growth
(cell size and number), especially in
muscle and bone.
Also stimulates fat breakdown.
GH
Levels
awake sleep
strenuous
exercise
hyposecretion of GH
Dwarfism
Kenadie - worlds
smallest girl due to
primordial dwarfism
Little People Big World
hypersecretion of GH
Gigantism
Bao Xishun, a 7ft 8.95in herdsman
from Inner Mongolia
Acromegaly
hypersecretion of GH
7 ft 1 inches
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone
(TSH)
Acts on the thyroid gland,
stimulating it to release T3 & T4
These thyroid hormones increase
glucose catabolism and body heat
production.
Negative feedback mechanism
involved in regulating levels.
The Endocrine Glands and Their
Hormones
Thyroid Gland
Located along the midline of the neck
Secretes two nonsteroid hormones
Triiodothyronine (T3)
Thyroxine (T4)
Regulates metabolism
increases protein synthesis
promotes glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glucose
uptake
Calcitonin: calcium metabolism

thyroid
trachea
larynx
Thyroxine (T
4
)
Triiodothyronine (T
3
)
Both control metabolic rate and cellular
oxidation

Calcitonin (from parafolicular cells)-
lowers blood CA
++
levels and causes
CA
++
reabsorption in bone
Thyroid gland selectively uptakes
iodine to produce T
3
& T
4
Thyroid Hormone Regulation
- Hyperthyroidism (Graves,
Goiter)
- Hypothyroidism (Cretinism,
Myxedima)
Thyroid Disorders
Goiter
Lack of iodine in diet
hyposecretion of T3 & T4
hyposecretion of
T3 & T4
Cretinism
Myxedema
hyposecretion of T3 & T4
myxedema
After thyroid
treatment
Exophthalmos-
hyperthyroidism
The Endocrine Glands
Parathyroid Glands
Secretes parathyroid hormone
regulates plasma calcium (osteoclast activity)
regulates phosphate levels
PTH release:
1) stimulates osteoclasts
2) enhances reabsorption of Ca
++
by kidneys
3) increases absorption of Ca
++
by intestinal
mucosal cells

Hyperparathyroidism- too much Ca
++
drawn out of
bone; could be due to tumor

Hypoparathyroidism- most often follow parathyroid
gland trauma or after removal of thyroid--- tetany,
muscle twitches, convulsions; if
untreatedrespiratory paralysis and death

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
(ACTH)
Acts on the adrenal cortex, stimulating it
to secrete glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol).
Glucocorticoids promote the synthesis of
glucose from noncarbohydrate sources
such as amino acids, and fatty acids
Negative feedback mechanism involved
in regulating levels.
Secreted directly in CSF to blood

High levels at night make us sleepy; low level during
day

Pineal gland is stimulated by darkness and inhibited
by light

Function in regulating circadian rhythms (sleep, body
temp, appetite) biological clock
Produces melatonin (synthesized
from seratonin, a derivative of
tryptophan)
The Endocrine Glands
Adrenal Medulla
Situated directly atop each kidney and stimulated by
the sympathetic nervous system
Secretes the catecholamines
Epinephrine: elicits a fight or flight response
Increase H.R. and B.P.
Increase respiration
Increase metabolic rate
Increase glycogenolysis
Vasodilation
Norepinephrine
House keeping system

The Endocrine Glands
Adrenal Cortex
Secretes over 30 different steroid hormones
(corticosteroids)
Mineralocorticoids
Aldosterone: maintains electrolyte balance
Glucocorticoids
Cortisol:
Stimulates gluconeogenisis
Mobilization of free fatty acids
Glucose sparing
Anti-inflammatory agent
Gonadocorticoids
testosterone, estrogen, progesterone
Adrenal Glands
adrenal cortex
adrenal medulla
Hormones of the Adrenal
Medulla
Adrenalin (epinephrine): converts
glycogen to glucose in liver
Noradrenalin (norepinephrine): increases
blood pressure
(sympathetic nervous system)

Corticosteroids: glucose levels)
Hormones of the Adrenal
Cortex
Glucocorticoids- cortisol
1. Decrease protein synthesis
2. Increase release and use of fatty acids
3. Stimulates the liver to produce glucose from non carbs
Mineralcorticoids- aldosterone
1. Stimulates cells in kidney to reabsorb Na+ from filtrate
2. Increases water reabsorption in kidneys
3. Increases blood pressure
Sex Steroids- small amts (androgens)
1. Onset of puberty
2. Sex drive
Cushings
Syndrome
Hypersecretion of
cortisone; may be caused
by an ACTH releasing
tumor in pituitary

Symptoms: trunkal obesity
and moon face, emotional
instability

Treatment: removal of
adrenal gland and hormone
replacement
Addisons
Disease
Hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and
mineral corticoids;

Symptoms- wt loss, fatigue, dizziness,
changes in mood and personality, low levels
of plasma glucose and Na+ levels, high
levels of K+

Treatment- corticosteroid replacement
therapy

The Endocrine Glands
Pancrease:
Located slightly behind the stomach
Insulin: reduces blood glucose
Facilitates glucose transport into the cells
Promotes glycogenesis
Inhibits gluconeogensis
Glucagon: increases blood glucose

Regulates glucose uptake by cells
Controlled via negative feedback:
insulin & glucagon
Blood sugar level: 90 mg/mL
Produced by the cells of the Islets of
Langerhan
Catalyze oxidation of glucose for ATP
production
Lowers blood glucose levels by promoting
transport of glucose into cells.
Stimulates glucose uptake by the liver and
muscle cells.
Stimulates glycogen synthesis in the liver
and muscle cells.
Also stimulates amino acid uptake and
protein synthesis of muscle tissue
Target Tissues for Insulin and
Glucagon
Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by
Promoting the cellular uptake of glucose
Slowing glycogen breakdown in the liver
Promoting fat storage
Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by
Stimulating conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver
Stimulating breakdown of fat and protein into glucose
Produced by the a cells of the Islets of
Langerhans
Stimulates change of glycogen to glucose
in the liver.
Synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and
non carbohydrate molecules such as fatty
acids and amino acids
Causes in blood glucose concentration

hypoglycemic- low blood sugar; deficient in glucagon

Type I Diabetes
hyposecretion of insulin
insulin dependant
juvenile onset

Type II Diabetes
late onset (adult)
insensitivity of cells to insulin
manage by exercise & diet
Located anterior to the heart

Produces- thymopoetin and thymosin
helps direct maturation and
specialization of T-lymphocytes
(immunity)
Thymus
Ovaries- produce estrogen and
progesteroneresponsible for maturation of the
reproductive organs and 2ndary sex characteristics
in girls at puberty


Gonads
Female
Reproductive
System
Testes- produce sperm and testosterone (initiates
maturation of male repro organs and 2ndary sex
characteristics in boys at puberty)
Gonads
Male Reproductive System
The Endocrine Glands
Gonads
testes (testosterone) = sex characteristics
muscle development and maturity
ovaries (estrogen) = sex characteristics
maturity and coordination
Kidneys (erythropoietin)
regulates red blood cell production
2. Anterior Pituitary Hormones
HORMONE TARGET FUNCTION
Thyroid (TSH)
Stimulating
Thyroid gland TH synthesis &
release
Growth (GH) Many tissues growth
Adrenocortico-
Tropin (ACTH)
Adrenal cortex Cortisol release
(androgens)
Prolactin (Prl) Breast Milk production
Follicle (FSH) Gonads Egg/sperm prod.
Luteinizing (LH) Gonads Sex hormones
III.Control of Endocrine Function
A. Positive
B. or Negative
Feedback
mechanisms

Self-regulating
system

STIMULUS
Hypothalamus
Releasing Hormone
(Release-Inhibiting
Hormone)

Pituitary
Stimulating Hormone

Gland
Hormone
Target
A. Positive Feedback
Not common
Classic example:
Action of OXYTOCIN
on uterine muscle
during birth.
Positive Feedback
Baby pushes on cervix
Nervous signal to Hypothalamus
Hypothal. manufactures OXY
OXY transported to POSTERIOR PITUITARY &
released
OXY stimulates uterine contraction
Loop stops when baby leaves birth canal
The Endocrine Response to
Exercise
Table 5.3 Page 172
Regulation of Glucose Metabolism
During Exercise
Glucagon secretion increases during exercise
to promote liver glycogen breakdown
(glycogenolysis)
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine further
increase glycogenolysis
Cortisol levels also increase during exercise for
protein catabolism for later gluconeogenesis.
Growth Hormone mobilizes free fatty acids
Thyroxine promotes glucose catabolism

Regulation of Glucose Metabolism
During Exercise
As intensity of exercise increases, so does the rate of
catecholamine release for glycogenolysis
During endurance events the rate of glucose release
very closely matches the muscles need. (fig 5.9, pg.
174)
When glucose levels become depleted, glucagon and
cortisol levels rise significantly to enhance
gluconeogenesis.

Regulation of Glucose Metabolism
During Exercise
Glucose must not only be delivered to the cells, it
must also be taken up by them. That job relies on
insulin.
Exercise may enhance insulins binding to receptors
on the muscle fiber.
Up-regulation (receptors) occurs with insulin after 4
weeks of exercise to increase its sensitivity (diabetic
importance).

Regulation of Fat Metabolism During
Exercise
When low plasma glucose levels occur, the
catecholamines are released to accelerate lypolysis.
Triglycerides are reduced to free fatty acids by lipase
which is activated by: (fig. 5.11, pg. 176)
Cortisol
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Growth Hormone
Hormonal Effects on Fluid and
Electrolyte Balance
Reduced plasma volume leads to release of
aldosterone which increases Na+ and H2O
reabsorption by the kidneys and renal tubes.
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) is released from the
posterior pituitary when dehydration is sensed by
osmoreceptors, and water is then reabsorbed by the
kidneys.
Figure 16.6
Metabolic Action of Growth
Hormone
How is the thyroid controlled?
Kenneth L. Campbell, 1997.
All rights reserved.
How is the adrenal cortex
controlled?
Kenneth L. Campbell, 1997. All rights reserved.
The adrenal/
stress axis &
blood pressure
Figure 16.15
Stress and the Adrenal Gland
How is growth hormone
controlled?
Kenneth L. Campbell, 1997. All rights reserved.
After meals glucose
from liver is mainly
stored as glycogen in
liver & muscle & as fat
in fat cells. When
more energy is
needed between
meals, glycogen, fat &
protein (last) are
broken down & liver
uses the parts to
make glucose.
Hormones (insulin,
glucagon, adrenalin,
cortisol) signal the
change from storage
to synthesis.
Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels
The
hyperglycemic
effects of
glucagon and
the
hypoglycemic
effects of
insulin
Figure 16.17
Figure 16.11
Effects of Parathyroid Hormone
Figure 16.13
The Four Mechanisms of
Aldosterone Secretion
Glucagon acts on liver to
stimulate glucose production
& release, & on fat to cause
fat breakdown. Glucagon
rises when glucose falls.
Adrenaline, cortisol, &
growth hormone also
make blood glucose
rise. But insulin-like-
growth factor I acts
like insulin.
Pancreas
Hormones Control the
Glucose Balance
Insulin acts on body cells
to allow them to take in
circulating glucose.
Insulin levels rise when
glucose rises.
Insulin Glucagon
Islets of Langerhans
http://medlib.med.utah.edu/WebPath/jpeg4/ENDO039.jpg
Insulin Glucagon
Islets of Langerhans
http://medlib.med.utah.edu/WebPath/jpeg4/ENDO039.jpg
Calcium Homeostasis
How are the gonads controlled?
LH
Kenneth L. Campbell, 1997. All rights reserved.
How are the gonads controlled? FSH
Kenneth L. Campbell, 1997. All rights reserved.
How is prolactin controlled?
Kenneth L. Campbell, 1997. All rights reserved.
Communication among cells & organisms &
between organisms & their environment is
absolutely central to life & reproduction. While
many of the basics of endocrine communication are
known, we are continually surprised by new
findings that revise our existing knowledge. Many,
of the details of endocrine molecular biology,
genetics, cell biology, & development remain to be
defined. As one of the most dynamic & central of
the biomedical sciences for practitioners,
paramedical professions, & basic scientists,
endocrinology will continue to be a vital science for
many years to come.
Conclusions:
See You.