C81IAP: Lecture 2

Introducing Learning Theory

Jessica S. Dunn
jessica.dunn@nottingham.edu.my



Overview of Learning Objectives
Define Learning
Developments in Research, Principles and Theories of
Learning:
- Behaviourist Views of Learning: Pavlov and Watson
- Operant Conditioning: Thorndike and Skinner
- Reinforcement vs. Punishment
Social-Cognitive Theory of Learning:
Observational Learning - Bandura
Applications in Everyday Life
What is Learning?

To identify and understand key principles and
Theories of Learning, including Classical
Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Social-
Cognitive Theory and Observational Learning.

To examine examples of how Learning
Theory can be applied to everyday life.

Learning:

A relatively permanent change in
behaviour or mental processes as a
result of practice or experience.
Learning is key to understanding everyday life.
Non-psychologists often take it for granted, but...
Developmental Psychologists can use it to better
understand how children learn language, learn to
walk and other cognitive skills.
Educational Psychologists can use it to enhance
the teaching and learning process; to understand
special learning needs and resolve learning
challenges.
Social psychologists study how attitudes, phobias,
social behaviours and prejudices are learned
through socialisation and experiences.
This reflects a Behaviourist perspective on
learning and is still regarded in mainstream
psychology as a breakthrough in understanding
the process of human learning.
Perspective suggests that there are specific
causes for behaviour. Thus the same causes
should produce the same effects on behaviour.
Is all behaviour automatic or predictable though?
No. But, when they posit that event A causes
behaviour B, what is really meant is that
behaviour B is more likely to occur when event A
happens.
(Machado & Silva, 2004)
Behaviourism as a theory was primarily
developed by B. F. Skinner. It loosely
encompasses the work of pioneers like
Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull.

In essence, three basic assumptions are held
to be true.

1. Learning is manifested by a change in
behaviour.
2. The environment shapes behaviour.

3. The principles of contiguity (how close in
time two events must be for a bond to be
formed) and reinforcement (any means of
increasing the likelihood that an event will
be repeated) are central to explaining the
learning process.

For behaviorists, learning is the acquisition
of new behaviour through conditioning.

The earliest challenge to the behaviourists
came in a publication in 1929 by Bode.

Bode thought Behaviourists were too
dependent on overt behaviour to explain
learning. They proposed looking at the
patterns rather than at isolated events.

Gestalt views of learning have been
incorporated into what have come to be
labeled cognitive theories. Two key
assumptions underlie this approach:
(1) that the memory system is an active
organized processor of information and
(2) that prior knowledge plays an important
role in learning.
Cognitive theories look beyond behaviour to
explain brain-based learning.

Constructivism - learning is a process in
which the learner actively constructs or builds
new ideas or concepts based upon current
and past knowledge or experience.
Here learning is viewed as a very personal
endeavour, whereby internalized concepts,
rules, and general principles may
consequently be applied in a practical real-
world context. (Driver et al., 1994)
Related to structuralism.
The history of science and its many
achievements provide evidence that this
approach is worth taking on board.
Why study behaviour if there are no causes to
our actions? Pointless...
Assuming that there is a cause-and-effect
dynamic in behaviour, provides hope that the
behaviour of people and animals can be
predicted, understood, improved upon and
even possibly changed through further
research and practice.
Learning - relatively permanent change
in behaviour or mental processes
resulting from practice or experience.

Conditioning - process of learning
associations between environmental
stimuli and behavioural responses.


Behaviour Potential - once something
is learned, an organism should be able
to exhibit a change in behaviour that
indicates learning has occurred.
Learning is exhibited by
"performance" of a corresponding
behaviour.

This means that behaviour
changes that are temporary or
due to things like drugs, alcohol
etc are not "learned".
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Cognitive-Social Learning
Observational Learning


Classical Conditioning is Associative Learning
i.e. Learning that two events are related or
linked.

Classical Conditioning is learning that occurs
when a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes paired
(associated) with an unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) to elicit a conditioned response.

Neutral Stimulus (NS): stimulus that,
before conditioning, doesnt naturally
bring about a response of interest.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):
stimulus that elicits an UCR occurring
without previous conditioning.
Unconditioned Response (UCR):
unlearned (automatic) reaction to an
Unconditioned stimulus occurring
without prior conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): is a
previously NS that, through repeated
pairings with an UCS, now causes a CR

Conditioned Response (CR): is a
learned reaction to a CS occurring
because of previous repeated pairings
with an UCS


Reflexes
Automatic stimulus-response
connections that are hardwired into
the brain.

Example: Accidentally touching the
fire on a lit stove and feeling the heat
and possibly pain from burning skin.
Classical Conditioning:
associative learning
that occurs when a
neutral stimulus (NS)
becomes paired
(associated) with an
unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) to elicit
a conditioned
response (CR)

John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007
Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Conditioned Emotional
Response (CER):
Watson demonstrated
how emotions can be
classically conditioned
to a previously neutral
stimulus (NS).

John B. Watson
This demonstrated that an originally neutral
stimulus when combined with an
unconditioned noxious (unpleasant)
stimulus can become a conditioned (learned)
stimulus (trigger) that evokes a conditioned
emotional response.

Watson and Rayner (1920, 2000) proved that
our fears can be classically conditioned.
CS
(White Rat)
UCS
(Loud
Noise)
CER
(Fear)

So now we understand the basics of Classical
conditioning, it is important that we
understand its related principles.

These include:
Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Stimulus
Generalization:
learned emotional
responses to
stimuli that are
similar to the
original
conditioned
stimuli (CS)

ALL
Snakes
bite!

Stimulus
Discrimination:
learned response to
a specific stimulus,
but not to other,
similar stimuli.

Here, we learn to
distinguish between
original and similar
stimuli.
Now I know
that some
snakes are
nice!
Classical Conditioning, like all learning, is only
relatively permanent. (Huffman, 2000)

This means our responses can be weakened or
suppressed over time with further learning,
development and maturity.

This process is known as Extinction.

Extinction doesnt mean that classical
conditioning has been reversed. Simply means
that we no longer respond to the stimulus in the
same way.
Extinction: gradual
weakening or suppression
of a previously
conditioned response (CR)

Spontaneous Recovery:
reappearance of a
previously extinguished
conditioned response (CR)
A baby is bitten by a dog and is afraid of all
small animals, this is an example of_______?

If you wanted to get Little Albert to fear
lollipops, you would present him with a
lollipop and______?

Operant
Conditioning:
learning in which
voluntary responses
are controlled by
their consequences
Operant conditioning is the use of
a behaviour's antecedent and/or
its consequence to influence the
occurrence and form of
behaviour.


1. Operant conditioning deals with the
modification of "voluntary behaviour" or
operant behaviour which is maintained by
its consequences AND
2. Classical conditioning deals with the
conditioning of reflex behaviours which are
elicited by antecedent conditions.


Thorndikes Contribution

Was interested in the probability of an
action being repeated is strengthened
when followed by a pleasant or
satisfying consequence.

Consequences of behaviour produce changes in
the probability of the behaviours recurrence.

Here, the association is between a RESPONSE and
its CONSEQUENCES

Thorndikes Law of Effect
Behaviours followed by positive outcomes are
strengthened, whereas behaviors followed by
negative outcomes are weakened.
This is called S-R theory because the organisms
behaviour is due to a connection between a
stimulus and a response.
B.F SKINNER
believed that mechanisms for learning are the
same for all species.

Positive reinforcement
The frequency of a response increases because it
is followed by a rewarding stimulus

Negative reinforcement
The frequency of a response increases because it
is followed by the removal of an aversive
(unpleasant) stimulus

Burrhus Frederic
Skinners
Contribution

Conducted
systematic
research using a
Skinner box
Behaviour
Consequence
Could automatically detect the occurrence of a
behavioural response or action through a response
lever; if the subject pressed the lever, the opposite
end would move and flick a switch, monitored by a
computer or other programmed device.

Chamber then delivers a primary reinforcer or
unconditioned stimulus like food (usually pellets) or
water and it registers the delivery of a conditioned
reinforcer.

This allowed Skinner to explore and track the
subjects rate of response to the reinforcer.

Reinforcement:
process of
strengthening a
response

Primary Reinforcers:
normally satisfy an
unlearned
biological need
(e.g., food)

Secondary
Reinforcers: learned
value (e.g., money,
praise)

Positive
Reinforcement:
adding (or presenting)
a stimulus, which
strengthens a
response and makes
it more likely to recur
(e.g., praise)
Negative Reinforcement:
taking away (or
removing) a stimulus,
which strengthens a
response and makes it
more likely to recur
(e.g., headache removed
after taking an aspirin)
Shaping:
teaches a desired response by reinforcing a
series of successively improving steps that
eventually lead to the desired response.

Example:
Driving a manual/standard shift car. We learn
step by step and our driving instructor may
only give praise when you master each skill.
Positive Punishment: adding (or presenting)
a stimulus that weakens a response and
makes it less likely to recur (e.g. shouting)

Negative Punishment:
taking away (or removing) a stimulus that
weakens a response and makes
it less likely to recur (e.g. restriction)


Positive R
Positive P
Negative R
Negative P
1. Satiation/Deprivation: The effect of a
consequence will be reduced if the
individual's "appetite" for that source of
stimulation has been satisfied.

- Likewise it may increase as the individual
becomes deprived of that stimulus.

Example: If someone is not hungry, food will
not be an effective reinforcer for behaviour.
2. Immediacy: After a response, how
immediately a consequence is then felt
determines the effectiveness of the
consequence. More immediate feedback will
be more effective than less immediate
feedback.

Example: If someone's license plate is caught by a traffic
camera for speeding and they receive a speeding ticket in
the mail a week later, this consequence will not be very
effective against speeding. What happens if they are caught
in the act by an officer who pulls them over?

3. Contingency: If a consequence does not
reliably, or consistently follow the target
response, its effectiveness upon the
response is reduced.
But, if a consequence follows the response
consistently after successive instances, its
ability to modify the response is increased.
- The schedule of reinforcement, when
consistent, leads to faster learning. When
the schedule is variable the learning is
slower.

4. Size: If the size, or amount, of the
consequence is large enough to be worth
the effort, the consequence will be more
effective upon the behaviour.

Example: An unusually large cash prize (RM$1M)
might be enough to get someone to attempt to
climb the mountains at Kota Kinabalu in under 6
hours, but if the reward is small (RM300), the
same person might not feel it to be worth the
effort of physical training, driving out, and
gearing up to mountain climb. In this example,
it's also useful to note that "effort could be
regarded as a punishing consequence.
Activity
Challenged behaviourist ideals.
Emphasizes the roles of thinking and social
learning in behaviour

Khlers chimps
demonstrated insight
learning (sudden
understanding of a
problem that implies
the solution).

Tolmans rats built a cognitive map (a
mental image of a three-dimensional
space).

They also displayed latent learning
(hidden learning that exists without
behavioural signs).
Learning new behaviours
or information by
watching others.

E.g. Bandura's Famous
Bobo Doll study to
demonstrate learned
aggression in kids.

Bandura hoped that the
experiments would prove
that aggression can be
explained, at least in
part, by social learning
theory.
Aggressive adult model scenario (24 children)
Same-sex adult model
Different-sex adult model

Non-aggressive adult model (24 children)
Same-sex adult model
Different-sex adult model

Control Group (24 children)
1. Attention we must be watching to learn
2. Retention involves mentally noting and
remembering the information (storing it in
memory)
3. Motor Reproduction we need to utilize
and develop the motor skills required to
imitate the model.
4. Reinforcement we are drawn to the idea
of modelling behaviour that is reinforced.

How do
advertisers
exploit
psychological
learning theory
to make you
feel passion
and loyalty
toward their
products?

Boeree, C.G. (2006). Personality Theories: Albert
Bandura. Retrieved October 6, 2010 from the
world wide web:
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/bandura.html
Gerrig, R.J. and Zimbardo, P.G. (2010).
Psychology and Life. Boston: Pearson. (Chapter
6).
Huffman, K. (2005). Living Psychology. Hoboken,
N.J.: John Wiley. (Chapter 6)
Huffman, K. (2007). Psychology in Action, 8
th
Ed.
MA: John Wiley and Sons Inc.


Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961).
Transmission of aggression through imitation
of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 63, 575-582.

Hart, K.E. (2006). Critical Analysis of an Original
Writing on Social Learning Theory: Imitation of
Film-Mediated Aggressive Models By: Albert
Bandura, Dorothea Ross and Sheila A.Ross
(1963). Retrieved October 6, 2010 from
http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Hart,%20Kare
n%20E,%20Imitation%20of%20Film-Mediated%20Aggressive%20Models.pdf

Isom, M.D. (1998). Albert Bandura: The Social
Learning Theory. Retrieved October 6, 2010 from
the world wide web:
http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/bandu
ra.htm
Sharon & Woolley 2004). Do Monsters Dream?
Young Childrens Understanding of the
Fantasy/Reality Distinction. Journal of
Developmental Psychology, 22, 293-310.
Worthman, C., & Loftus, E. (1992). Psychology:
McGraw-Hill: New York.