Strength of Materials

Modulus Types
Modulus: Slope of the stress-strain curve
Initial Modulus: slope of the curve drawn at the origin.
Tangent Modulus: slope of the curve drawn at the tangent of the curve at some
point.
Secant Modulus: Ratio of stress to strain at any point on curve in a stress-strain
diagram. It is the slope of a line from the origin to any point on a stress-strain
curve.


Stress
Strain
Initial Modulus
Tangent Modulus
Secant Modulus

Various regions and points on the stress-strain curve.

Strain ( ) (e/Lo)
4
1
2
3
5
Elastic
Region
Plastic
Region
Strain
Hardening
Fracture
ultimate
tensile
strength

Elastic region
slope=Youngs(elastic) modulus
yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
strain hardening
fracture
necking
yield
strength


1.True elastic limit based on micro strain measurements at strains on
order of 2 x 10
-6
in | in. This elastic limit is a very low value and is
related to the motion of a few hundred dislocations.

2.Proportional limit is the highest stress at which stress is directly
proportional to strain.

3.Elastic limit is the greatest stress the material can withstand without
any measurable permanent strain remaining on the complete release of
load. With increasing sensitivity of strain measurement, the value of the
elastic limit is decreased until at the limit it equals the true elastic limit
determined from micro strain measurements. With the sensitivity of
strain usually employed in engineering studies (10
-4
in | in), the elastic
limit is greater than the proportional limit.

1.The yield strength is the stress required to produce a small-specified
amount of plastic deformation.
The usual definition of this property is the offset yield strength
determined by the stress corresponding to the intersection of the stress-
strain curve and a line parallel to the elastic part of the curve offset by a
specified strain (Fig. 1).


Stainless Steel E= 28.5 million psi (196.5 GPa)
Aluminum E= 10 million psi
Brass E= 16 million psi
Copper E= 16 million psi
Molybdenum E= 50 million psi
Nickel E= 30 million psi
Titanium E= 15.5 million psi
Tungsten E= 59 million psi
Carbon fiber E= 40 million psi
Glass E= 10.4 million psi
Composites E= 1 to 3 million psi
Plastics E= 0.2 to 0.7 million psi


Stress- strain diagrams for various materials
Universal Testing Machine
Area in red indicates intensity of stress
Equipment to measure Stress-Strain
Strainometers: measures dimensional changes that
occur during testing
extensometers, deflectometers, and compressometers measure
changes in linear dimensions.
load cells measure load
data is recorded at several readings and the results averaged,
e.g., 10 samples per second during the test.






Material Properties
There a 5 properties typically used to describe a materials
behavior and capabilities:

1. Strength
2. Hardness
3. Ductility
4. Brittleness
5. Toughness

The ability to resist deformation and maintain
its shape
1. Strength

-Given in terms of the yield strength, s
y
, or the
ultimate tensile strength, s
ult


The ability to resist indentation, abrasion, and wear
2. Hardness
STRENGTH and HARDNESS are related! A high-strength material is typically
resistant to wear and abrasion...
- For metals, this is determined with the Rockwell
Hardness or Brinell tests that measure indentation/
penetration under a load

Material

Brinell Hardness

Pure Aluminum

15

Pure Copper

35

Mild Steel

120

304 Stainless Steel

250

Hardened Tool Steel

650/700

Hard Chromium Plate

1000

Chromium Carbide

1200

Tungsten Carbide

1400

Titanium Carbide

2400

Diamond

8000

Sand

1000

A comparison of hardness of some typical materials:
The ability to deform before ultimate failure
3. Ductility
Ductile materials can be pulled or drawn into pipes, wire,
and other structural shapes

Ductile materials include copper, aluminum,and brass

The inability to deform before ultimate failure
4. Brittleness
Brittleness is the LACK of ductility...
- The opposite of ductility, brittle materials deform little
before ultimately fracturing

- Brittle materials include glass and cast iron

The ability to absorb energy
5. Toughness
Toughness and Ductility/brittleness are related!
Brittle things. ...are not tough!
- Material Toughness (slow absorption)
- not a readily observable property
- Defined by the area under the stress-
strain curve

- Impact Toughness (rapid absorption)
- Ability to absorb energy of an impact
without fracturing
Stiffness
Stiffness is a measure of the materials ability to resist deformation under load as
measured in stress.
Stiffness is measures as the slope of the stress-strain curve
Hookean solid: (like a spring) linear slope
steel
aluminum
iron
copper



Stiffness is usually measured by the Modulus of Elasticity
(Stress/strain)
Steel is stiff (tough to bend).
Analysis and Design
of Beams for Bending
Introduction
Beams - structural members supporting loads at
various points along the member
Objective - Analysis and design of beams
Transverse loadings of beams are classified as
concentrated loads or distributed loads
Applied loads result in internal forces consisting
of a shear force (from the shear stress
distribution) and a bending couple (from the
normal stress distribution)
Normal stress is often the critical design criteria
Requires determination of the location and
magnitude of largest bending moment
Classification of Beam Supports
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams
Determination of maximum normal and
shearing stresses requires identification of
maximum internal shear force and bending
couple.
Shear force and bending couple at a point are
determined by passing a section through the
beam and applying an equilibrium analysis on
the beam portions on either side of the
section.
Sign conventions for shear forces V and V
and bending couples M and M
Quantifying Bending Stress
Compression
Tension
Sagging condition
Neutral Axis
y
A
B
A
B
Bending Stress :
M : Bending Moment
I : 2
nd
Moment of area of the cross section
y : Vertical distance from the neutral axis
: tensile (+) or compressive(-) stress
y
Quantifying Bending Stress
Hogging condition
y
Compression
Tension
Neutral Axis
A
B
A
B
Neutral Axis : geometric centroid of the cross section or
transition between compression and tension
Logitudinal Bending Stress
Torsion
Contents
Torsional Loads on Circular
Shafts
Net Torque Due to Internal
Stresses
Axial Shear Components
Shaft Deformations
Shearing Strain
Stresses in Elastic Range
Normal Stresses
Torsional Failure Modes
Angle of Twist in Elastic Range
Design of Transmission Shafts
Stress Concentrations
Torsion of Noncircular Members
Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts
Stresses and strains of circular
shafts subjected to twisting couples
or torques
Generator creates an equal and
opposite torque T
Shaft transmits the torque to the
generator
Turbine exerts torque T on the shaft
Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses
Net of the internal shearing stresses is an
internal torque, equal and opposite to the
applied torque,
Although the net torque due to the shearing
stresses is known, the distribution of the stresses
is not
Unlike the normal stress due to axial loads, the
distribution of shearing stresses due to torsional
loads can not be assumed uniform.
Distribution of shearing stresses is statically
indeterminate must consider shaft
deformations
Axial Shear Components
Torque applied to shaft produces shearing
stresses on the faces perpendicular to the
axis.
The existence of the axial shear components is
demonstrated by considering a shaft made up
of axial slats.

The slats slide with respect to each other when
equal and opposite torques are applied to the
ends of the shaft.
Conditions of equilibrium require the
existence of equal stresses on the faces of the
two planes containing the axis of the shaft
From observation, the angle of twist of the
shaft is proportional to the applied torque and
to the shaft length.
Shaft Deformations
When subjected to torsion, every cross-section
of a circular shaft remains plane and
undistorted.
Cross-sections of noncircular (non-
axisymmetric) shafts are distorted when
subjected to torsion.
Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular
shafts remain plain and undistorted because a
circular shaft is axisymmetric.
Shearing Strain
Consider an interior section of the shaft. As a
torsional load is applied, an element on the
interior cylinder deforms into a rhombus.
Shear strain is proportional to twist and radius
It follows that
Since the ends of the element remain planar,
the shear strain is equal to angle of twist.
Stresses in Elastic Range
Recall that the sum of the moments from
the internal stress distribution is equal to
the torque on the shaft at the section,
The results are known as the elastic torsion
formulas,
Multiplying the previous equation by the
shear modulus,
From Hookes Law, , so
The shearing stress varies linearly with the
radial position in the section.
Torsional Failure Modes
Ductile materials generally fail in
shear. Brittle materials are weaker in
tension than shear.

When subjected to torsion, a ductile
specimen breaks along a plane of
maximum shear, i.e., a plane
perpendicular to the shaft axis.
When subjected to torsion, a brittle
specimen breaks along planes
perpendicular to the direction in
which tension is a maximum, i.e.,
along surfaces at 45
o
to the shaft
axis.
Angle of Twist in Elastic Range
Recall that the angle of twist and maximum
shearing strain are related,
In the elastic range, the shearing strain and shear
are related by Hookes Law,
Equating the expressions for shearing strain and
solving for the angle of twist,
If the torsional loading or shaft cross-section
changes along the length, the angle of rotation is
found as the sum of segment rotations
Design of Transmission Shafts
Principal transmission shaft
performance specifications are:
- power
- speed
Determine torque applied to shaft at
specified power and speed,
Find shaft cross-section which will not
exceed the maximum allowable
shearing stress,
Designer must select shaft
material and cross-section to
meet performance specifications
without exceeding allowable
shearing stress.
Stress Concentrations
The derivation of the torsion formula,


assumed a circular shaft with uniform
cross-section loaded through rigid end
plates.
Experimental or numerically determined
concentration factors are applied as
The use of flange couplings, gears and
pulleys attached to shafts by keys in
keyways, and cross-section discontinuities
can cause stress concentrations
Torsion of Noncircular Members
At large values of a/b, the maximum
shear stress and angle of twist for other
open sections are the same as a
rectangular bar.
For uniform rectangular cross-sections,
Previous torsion formulas are valid for
axisymmetric or circular shafts
Planar cross-sections of noncircular
shafts do not remain planar and stress
and strain distribution do not vary
linearly
Plastics
Design for Plastics
Parts Consolidation
Life Cycle Benefits
Surface Design Possibilities

Why Plastics?
Why Plastics?
Source: Automotive Plastics Report -
1999, 2000 Market Search, Inc.
Plastics Usage in Automobiles
(North America)

Year

Lb./Vehicle
Total Lb.
(Billion)
1970 70
1988 150 2.2
1999 257 4.0
2000 255 4.2
2005 279 4.8
2010 307 5.4
Source: Automotive Plastics Report
2000
Plastics Applications
2000 2010
Segment M Lb. M Lb. M Lb.
Interior 1,688 2,021 +333
Body 1,181 1,601 +420
Underhood 388 627 +239
Chassis 961 1,195 +234
Total 4,217 5,444 1,226
Specific Gravity
Steel 7.8
Aluminum 2.6
Magnesium 1.75
Plastics 0.9 - 1.6

Automotive Plastics Basics
for
Exteriors




How Plastics are Classified
Selection Considerations
Physical Properties
Chemistry
Process Characteristics
Relative Part or System Cost
Most Common of the Approx. 60
Commercial Families of Plastic Matls
Acrylonitrile
Butadiene Styrene
(ABS)
Acetal (POM)
Acrylics (PMMA)
Fluoropolymer
(PTFE)

Ionomer
Nylon (PA)
Phenolic
Polycarbonate (PC)
Most Common of the Approx. 60
Commercial Families of Plastic Matls
Polyester (PBT, PET)
Polyester Thermoset
(SMC, BMC)
Polyethylene (PE)
Polyphenyleneoxide
(PPO)
Polypropylene (PP)

Polystyrene (PS)
Polyurethane (PUR)
Polyvinylchloride
(PVC)
Styrene Acrylonitrile
(SAN)
Vinyl Ester

Most Commonly Used Plastics in
Automotive Applications
Source: Automotive Plastics Report
2000
Plastics Applications
2000 2010
Segment M Lb. M Lb. M Lb.
Interior 1,688 2,021 +333
Body 1,181 1,601 +420
Underhood 388 627 +239
Chassis 961 1,195 +234
Total 4,217 5,444 1,226
Primary Processing Methods
Blow Molding
Calendaring
Casting
Compression Molding
Extrusion
Reaction Injection
Molding
Injection Molding
Powder or Slush
Molding
Thermoforming
Filament Winding
Pultrusion
Resin Transfer
Molding
Rotational Molding

Fatigue
(Failure under fluctuating / cyclic stresses)




Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to alternating
stresses, over a long period of time.
Under fluctuating / cyclic stresses, failure can occur at loads
considerably lower than tensile or yield strengths of material under a
static load.

Estimated to causes 90% of all failures of metallic structures
(bridges, aircraft, machine components, etc.)

Fatigue failure is brittle-like (relatively little plastic deformation) -
even in normally ductile materials. Thus sudden and catastrophic!

Examples: springs, turbine blades, airplane wings, bridges and bones


Fatigue does not always lead to failure

Failure can occur if the stress surpasses the
endurance limit of the material
[Endurance Limit (Sn): Is the stress value below which an infinite number
of cycles will not cause failure]

Steel will not fail if the endurance limit is not passed

Aluminum will eventually fail regardless of the
endurance limit

Cyclic Stresses

There are three common ways in which stresses may be applied:
axial (tension or compression), torsional (twisting),or flextural (bending)
Examples of these are seen in Fig. 1.
Figure 1 Visual examples of axial stress, torsional stress, and flexural stress.


Fatigue failure proceeds in three
distinct stages:
1) Crack initiation in the areas of
stress concentration (near stress
raisers),
2) Incremental crack propagation,
3) Final catastrophic failure.

Crack I nitiation and Propagation:
The S-N Curve:
A very useful way to visualize time to failure for a specific material is with the S-N
curve.
The "S-N" means stress v/s cycles to failure, which when plotted uses the stress
amplitude, s
a
plotted on the vertical axis and the logarithm of the number of cycles to
failure.
An important characteristic to this plot as seen in Fig. 2 is the fatigue limit

Figure 2
A S-N Plot for an aluminum alloy

Other important terms are - fatigue strength and fatigue life.

The stress at which failure occurs for a given number of cycles
is the fatigue strength.

The number of cycles required for a material to fail at a certain
stress in fatigue life.

Significance of the fatigue limit :
If the material is loaded below this stress, then it will not fail,
regardless of the number of times it is loaded.

Material such as aluminum, copper and magnesium do not
show a fatigue limit, therefore they will fail at any stress and number
of cycles.

S-N Curve for Ferrous v/s non-ferrous metals
Creep


Creep is a time-dependent and permanent
deformation of materials when subjected to a
constant load at a high temperature (> 0.4 Tm).

Examples: turbine blades, steam generators.


Stages of creep



1. Instantaneous deformation:
mainly elastic.

2. Primary/transient creep:
Slope of strain vs. time decreases with time: work-hardening

3. Secondary/steady-state creep:
Rate of straining is constant: balance of work-hardening and recovery.

4. Tertiary:
Rapidly accelerating strain rate up to failure:
formation of internal cracks, voids, grain boundary separation, necking, etc.



Parameters of creep behavior

The stage secondary/steady-state creep is of longest duration and the steady-state
creep rate is the most important parameter of the creep behavior in long-life applications.
Another parameter, especially important in short-life creep situations, is time to rupture, or the
rupture lifetime, tr.
t / s . e . = e&




Creep: stress and temperature effects

With increasing stress or temperature:

The instantaneous strain increases
The steady-state creep rate increases
The time to rupture decreases
Alloys for high-temperature use
(turbines in jet engines, hypersonic airplanes, nuclear reactors, etc.)


Creep is generally minimized in materials with:
High melting temperature
High elastic modulus
Large grain sizes (inhibits grain boundary sliding)


Following materials are especially resilient to creep:
Stainless steels
Refractory metals (containing elements of high melting point,
like Nb, Mo, W, Ta)
Superalloys (Co, Ni based: solid solution hardening and
secondary phases)

5.6 Design Philosophy
Loading known and geometry specified Specify
factor of safety, N, and determine material.
Loading known and material specified Specify
factor of safety, N, and determine required
geometry.

Loading known and material and geometry
specified Determine factor of safety Is it
safe??
Design
Analysis
Also check deflection!!
5.7 Design Factors, N
(a.k.a. Factor of Safety)
N = 1.25 to 2.0 Static loading, high level of confidence in all design
data
N = 2.0 to 2.5 Dynamic loading, average confidence in all design
data
N = 2.5 to 4.0 Static or dynamic with uncertainty about loads,
material properties, complex stress state, etc
N = 4.0 or higher Above + desire to provide extra safety
FOR DUCTILE MATERIALS:
Uniaxial: Bi-axial:
or
5.8 Failure Theories
1. Maximum Normal Stress
2. Modified Mohr
3. Yield strength
4. Maximum shear stress
5. Distortion energy
6. Goodman
7. Gerber
8. Soderberg
Ductile or Brittle
Dynamic or Static
Fatigue
Loading
Theory to use depends on:
Static
Loading
Failure
Theory:
When to Use? Failure When: Design Stress:
1. Maximum
Normal Stress
Brittle Material/ Uniaxial
Static Stress
2. Yield Strength
(Basis for MCH T
213)
Ductile Material/
Uniaxial Static Normal
Stress
3. Maximum Shear
Stress (Basis for
MCH T 213)
Ductile Material/ Bi-
axial Static Stress
4. Distortion Energy
(von Mises)
Ductile Material/ Bi-
axial Static Stress
5. Goodman
Method
Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Normal
Stress (Fatigue Loading)
Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Shear Stress
(Fatigue Loading)
Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Combined
Stress (Fatigue Loading)

Failure Theories for STATIC Loading
Uniaxial: Bi-axial:
or
Failure
Theory:
When Use? Failure When: Design Stress:
1. Maximum
Normal Stress
Brittle Material/ Uniaxial
Static Stress
2. Yield Strength
(Basis for MCH T
213)
Ductile Material/
Uniaxial Static Normal
Stress
3. Maximum Shear
Stress (Basis for
MCH T 213)
Ductile Material/ Bi-
axial Static Stress
4. Distortion Energy
(von Mises)
Ductile Material/ Bi-
axial Static Stress
5. Goodman
Method
a. Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Normal
Stress (Fatigue Loading)
b. Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Shear Stress
(Fatigue Loading)
c. Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Combined
Stress (Fatigue Loading)

Failure Theories for FATIGUE Loading
Failure
Theory:
When Use? Failure When: Design Stress:
1. Maximum
Normal Stress
Brittle Material/ Uniaxial
Static Stress
2. Yield Strength
(Basis for MCH T
213)
Ductile Material/
Uniaxial Static Normal
Stress
3. Maximum Shear
Stress (Basis for
MCH T 213)
Ductile Material/ Bi-
axial Static Stress
4. Distortion Energy
(von Mises)
Ductile Material/ Bi-
axial Static Stress
5. Goodman
Method
a. Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Normal
Stress (Fatigue Loading)
b. Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Shear Stress
(Fatigue Loading)
c. Ductile Material/
Fluctuating Combined
Stress (Fatigue Loading)

Comparison of Static Failure Theories:
Maximum Shear most conservative
Shows no failure zones
The Goodman Diagram - note difference between no failure
zone and safe zone
s
m
s
a
General Comments:
1. Failure theory to use depends on material (ductile vs. brittle) and type of loading (static or
dynamic). Note, ductile if elongation > 5%.
2. Ductile material static loads ok to neglect Kt (stress concentrations)
3. Brittle material static loads must use Kt
4. Terminology:
Su (or Sut) = ultimate strength in tension
Suc = ultimate strength in compression
Sy = yield strength in tension
Sys = 0.5*Sy = yield strength in shear
Sus = 0.75*Su = ultimate strength in shear
Sn = endurance strength = 0.5*Su or get from Fig 5-8 or S-N curve
S

n = estimated actual endurance strength = Sn(C

m
) (C
st
) (C
R
) (C
s
)
Ssn = 0.577* Sn = estimated actual endurance strength in shear




5.9 What Failure Theory to Use:
THANK YOU