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Page 1
Orbit definition and Properties
Keplers laws of planetary / satellite motion
Equation of satellite orbits
Describing the orbit of a satellite
Locating the satellite in the orbit



Outline
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Orbit Definition and Properties
An orbit is a stable path around the earth traversed periodically
by a satellite above the atmosphere of the earth.
Orbits are elliptical
Orbits have an Eccentricity parameter
Certain orbital properties are described by Kepplers laws

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Axes of Ellipse
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An ellipse has two axes: a major axis and a minor axis
b
a
b
a
a: semimajor axis, an ellipse has two semimajor axes
b: semiminor axis, an ellipse has two semiminor axes
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Ellipse Properties
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The sum of the distances from any point P on an ellipse to its two foci is
constant and equal to the major diameter
The eccentricity of an ellipse is the ratio of the distance between the two foci
and the length of the major axis
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Keplers laws of planetary motion
Johannes Kepler published laws of planetary motion in solar system in early 17
th
century
Laws explained extensive astronomical planetary measurements performed by Tycho Brahe
Keplers laws were proved by Newtons theory of gravity in mid 18
th
century
Keplers laws approximate motion of satellites around Earth
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Keplers laws (as applicable to satellite motion)
1. The orbit of a satellite is an ellipse with the Earth at one of the two foci
2. A line joining a satellite and the Earths center sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time
3. The square of the orbital period of a satellite is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

( ) | cos 1
. 1
e
p
r
+
=
const . 2 =
dt
dr
r
const . 3
3
2
=
a
T
Illustration of Keplers law
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Keplers First law
A satellite, as a secondary body, follows an elliptical path around a primary
body (earth).
The center of mass of the two bodies, the barycenter, will be at one of the
foci.
For semimajor axis a and semiminor axis b, the orbital eccentricity e is be
expressed by,

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Keplers Second law
A ray from the barycenter to an orbiting satellite will sweep out
equal areas in the orbital plane in equal time intervals.

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Keplers Third Law
The square of the orbital time is proportional to the cube of the
mean distance, a, between the two bodies (semimajor axis).
For a satellite motion of n radians/sec (orbital period P = 2/n)
and the gravitational parameter of the earth, G*M = =
3.986004418E5 km
3
/s
2
, then the mean distance, a, is
calculated as,

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a
3
=

n
2
=
P
2
4t
2
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Derivation of satellite orbit (1)
Based on Newtons theory of gravity and laws of motion
Satellite moves in a plane that contains Earths origin
Acting force is gravity
Mass of Earth is much larger than the mass of a satellite


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Satellite in Earths orbit
3
r
m GM
E
r
F =
Gravitational force on the satellite
Newtons 2
nd
law
2
2
dt
d
m m
r
a F = =
Combining the two
0
3 2
2
= +
r dt
d r r
2 3 5
24
2 2 11
/s km 10 983 . 3
kg 10 98 . 5
/kg Nm 10 672 . 6
=
=
=

E
M
G
Constants
Differential equation that determines the orbit
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Derivation of satellite orbit (2)
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Solution of the motion differential equation gives trajectory
in the form of an ellipse

0
0
cos 1 | e
p
r
+
=
moment angular
ty eccentrici

h
h
p
e

2
Coordinate system rotated so that the satellite plane is the
same as (X
0
,Y
0
) plane
Not all values for eccentricity give stable orbits
Eccentricity in interval (0,1) gives stable elliptical orbit
Eccentricity of 0 gives circular orbit
Eccentricity = 1, parabolic orbit, the satellite escapes the
gravitational pull of the Earth
Eccentricity > 1, hyperbolic orbit, the satellite escapes
gravitational pull of the Earth

270
300
330
0


e=0.9
e=0.5
e=0.2
e=0
p = 1;
e = 0.2
fi = 0:0.01:2*pi;
r = p./(1+cos(fi));
polar(fi,r)
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Orbital Coordinates and Other
measurements
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Point O is the center of the earth.
Point C is the center of the elli[se.
The orbital plane may be inclined to
the earths equator.
Apogee height (radius), r
a
= a(1+e)
Perigee height (radius), r
p
= a(1-e)
The flight path angle, is,
r
o
=
a(1 e
2
)
1+ ecos|
o
e =
a
2
b
2
a
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Describing the orbit of a satellite (1)
E and F are focal points of the ellipse
Earth is one of the focal points (say E)
a major semi axis
b minor semi axis
Perigee point when the satellite is closest to
Earth
Apogee point when the satellite is furthest
from Earth
The parameters of the orbit are related
Five important results:
1. Relationship between a and p
2. Relationship between b and p
3. Relationship between eccentricity,
perigee and apogee distances
4. 2
nd
Keplers law
5. 3
rd
Keplers law


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0
0
cos 1 | e
p
r
+
=
a FS ES 2 = +
Elliptic trajectory
cylindrical coordinates
Basic relationship of
ellipse
Point E is the center of the earth.
Point C is the center of the elli[se.
The orbital plane may be inclined to the earths
equator
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Describing the orbit of a satellite (2)
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1. Relationship between a and p
( ) ( )
2
0 0 0 0
1
2
1 1
0 2
e
p
e
p
e
p
r r a

+
+
=
= + = = t | |
2
2
2
1
/
1 e
h
e
p
a

=

2. Relationship between b and p
0
0
cos 1 | e
p
r
+
=
Consider point P: FP+EP=2a
Since FP=EP , EP=a
From triangle CEP
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2 2 2
1 ;
1
/
1
1
1
1
e a b
e
h
e
p
b
e
p
e
p
e a e a b
=

= =

3. Relationship between eccentricity, perigee and apogee distances

a p
r
e
p
EA r
e
p
EB =

= =
+
=
1
;
1
e
r r
r r
p a
p a
=
+

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Describing the orbit of a satellite (3)
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4. 2
nd
Keplers law The area swept by radius vector
( ) | | ( ) | |
hdt dt
dt
d
dt
ds r dt v r ds r ds r dA
2
1
2
1
2
1
, sin
2
1
, sin
2
1
0
0 0
0 0 0 0
= =
Z = Z =
r
r v r
const = = h
dt
dA
2
1
5. 3
nd
Keplers law
dt h dA
2
1
=
hT hdt ab
T
2
1
2
1
0
= =
}
t
Integrating both sides
( )
3 2
3
2
2
3
2
2
2
3 2
2
2 2 2 2
2
~
4
/
4 4 1 4
a T
a T
a
p h
p
h
a
h
e a a
T
(

=
(

= =

t
t t t
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Locating the satellite in the orbit (1)
Known: time at the perigee tp
Determine: location of the satellite at arbitrary time t>tp
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Definitions:

S satellite
O center of the Earth
C center of the ellipse and corresponding circle

0
r - distance between satellite and center of the Earth
0
|
- true anomaly
E
- eccentric anomaly
A circle is drawn so that it
encompasses the satellites
elliptical trajectory
2 / 3
2 / 1
2
a T
t
q = = - average angular velocity
( )
p
t t M =q
- mean anomaly
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Locating the satellite in the orbit (2)
Algorithm summary:
1. Calculate average angular velocity:
2. Calculate mean anomaly:
3. Solver for eccentric anomaly:
4. Find polar coordinates:
5. Find rectangular coordinates
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2 / 3 2 / 1
/ a q =
( )
p
t t M =q
( ) E e E M sin =
( ) | |
( )
(

= =

0
0
2
1
0 0
1
cos ; cos 1
er
r e a
E e a r |
( ) ( )
0 0 0 0 0 0
sin ; cos | | r y r x = =
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The satellite NOAA-B (1980-43A) was launched in May 1980
into an orbit with perigee height of 260 km and apogee height
1440 km.
We wish to find the orbital period and the orbital eccentricity.
Data:
2a = 2re+hp + ha = 2(6378.14)+260+1440 = 14456.28 km
Calculations:
a = 7228.14 km
T = 6115.77 sec/orbit
e = 1 - (re+hp)/a = 0.0816254

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Geosynchrounous Orbit
A geosynchronous orbit is an orbit (usually equatorial)
having a period of one sidereal day, 23h 56m 04.0905s
(23.9344695833 hours, or 86164.090530833 seconds).
A siderial day is the rotation of the earth in relation to the
(relatively fixed) position of the stars. Shorter than solar
day.

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A geosynchronous orbit has a period of one sidereal day,
T = 86164.090530833 seconds
The radius is given by,

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So
a = 42, 164.17 km
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Polar Orbit
A polar orbit is an orbit that passes over (or nearly passes
over) both North and South poles.
Can be sun-synchronous (heliosynchronous)
Has a low altitude (800 - 1000 km), that is slightly retrograde,
and leads to high resolution images with approximately
constant illumination angles
Used for weather, environmental, and spy satellites

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