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BEX 17003
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER 6(b)
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Chapter 6:
SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATE CURRENT
AND VOLTAGE CIRCUITS


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Lecture Contents
1. Introduction
2. Generating Sinusoidal Voltages
3. The Sine Wave
4. Phase Relationships
5. Average and RMS Value
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6.1 INTRODUCTION
Direct current (DC) is known as the electricity flowing in a constant
direction, and/or possessing a voltage with constant polarity.
DC is the kind of electricity made by a battery with definite positive
and negative terminals.
While, the alternating current (AC) is the sources that produce
voltages with alternating polarity, reversing positive and negative
over time.
In other words, the alternating current is the waveform where its
magnitude always varies with respect to time (emphasis is given to
the sine wave).


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ALTERNATING CURRENT

Types of ac waveform:
Sinusoidal waveform Square waveform
Saw tooth waveform Triangle waveform
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Advantages ac over dc

Many appliances need a large supply of current using of
ac/dc generator
AC generator larger, less complex internally, cheaper to operate

AC voltage easily and efficiently be transformed up/down
using transformer
method for dc voltages is inefficient ad more complex

Nearly all electronic circuits/equipment powered by dc
voltages
ac power arrives at home have to be converted into dc power
WHY ALTERNATING CURRENT?
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6.2 GENERATING SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES
One way to generate sinusoidal voltage is to rotate a coil of wire in a
permanent magnetic field.
Figure below shows the simplified ac generator to generate ac voltage.
The magnitude of the resultant voltage is proportional to the rate at which
the flux lines are cut.
Basic Generator Construction
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360
0
GENERATOR OPERATION
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GENERATING AC VOLTAGES
Coil voltage versus angular
position
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WHAT TO KNOW???
Based-on Problem
Find the period and frequency of the waveform. Then, find rms current, rms
voltage, Vp, Vpp and average voltage across R1. Voltage source is in rms value.
Vs
100 V
R1
R2
O k 0 . 1
O 560
1. Period, T = ?
2. Frequency = ?
3. RMS Current, Irms = ?
4. RMS Voltage, Vrms = ?
5. Peak Voltage, Vp = ?
6. Peak to Peak Voltage, Vpp = ?
7. Average Voltage, Vavg = ?
Vs
0
V
p
t
5 ms
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6.3 THE SINE WAVE
SINE WAVE
The sine wave or sinusoidal waveform is the fundamental type of
alternating current (ac) and alternating voltage.
Produced by two types of sources:
1) Rotating electrical machines (ac generators)
2) Electronic oscillator circuits (electronic signal generators).
Symbol for sinusoidal voltage
Time (t)
Voltage (+V)
Or
Current (+I)
Voltage (-V)
Or
Current (-I)
Positive maximum
Negative maximum
Graph of one cycle of a sine wave
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THE SINE WAVE cont..
SINE WAVE
Circuits driven by
sinusoidal current or
voltage sources is
called ac circuits.
When a sinusoidal
voltage source (Vs) is
applied to a resistive
circuit, an alternating
sinusoidal current
results.
When the voltage
changes polarity, the
current
correspondingly
changes direction.


R
+
-
V
s
I
Positive alternation
R
+
-
V
s
I
Negative alternation
(a) Positive voltage :current direction as shown
(b) Negative voltage :current reverses direction
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Consider a sinusoidal wave in Figure A The
sinusoidal signal can be expressed as



where V
m
is the peak value (amplitude),
is the angular frequency, is the phase
angle and T is the period.

Sinusoidal signals are periodic, repeating the
same pattern in interval T, which is
( ) ( ) t cos V t v
m
+ =
Figure A
( ) ( ) t v T t v = +
THE SINE WAVE cont..
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The sine/cosine function completes 1 cycle in every 2
radian, therefore

Frequency of sinusoidal signal is the number of
completed cycle in one second, which is


The angular frequency is given as



Angular frequency has a unit of radian/second (rad/s).
T
t
e
2
=
f t e 2 =
T
f
1
=
2 T =
THE SINE WAVE cont..
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Phase relationship:
Assume there are two sinusoidal
voltage signal as shown in Figure
B.
Since v
2
(t) reaches the peak value
first, therefore it is said that v
2
(t)
leads v
1
(t) by or v
1
(t) lags v
2
(t) by |.
In this situation, both v
1
and v
2
are
also said to be out of phase.
If | = 0, then v
1
(t) and v
2
(t) are said
to be in phase, in which they reach
the minimum and maximum point
at the same time.
Figure B
THE SINE WAVE cont..
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THE SINE WAVE cont..
MESUREMENT OF AC MAGNITUDE
One way to express the magnitude (amplitude), of an AC
quantity is to measure its peak height on a waveform graph.
This is known as the peak value of an AC waveform
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THE SINE WAVE cont..
MESUREMENT OF AC MAGNITUDE
Another way is to measure the total height between opposite
peaks. This is known as the peak-to-peak (P-P) value of an AC
waveform
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THE SINE WAVE cont..
The Period and Frequency of AC Waveform
A sine wave continues to repeat itself in identical cycles.
The period (T) of sine wave is the time required to complete one full cycle.
V
s
-V
s
0
t
Period (T)
Period (T)
Period (T)
1st cycle 2nd cycle 3rd cycle
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THE SINE WAVE cont..
The Period and Frequency of AC Waveform
The frequency ( f ) of a waveform is the number of cycles that sine
wave completes in one second.
Frequency is in unit Hertz (Hz).
V
-V
0
t
1 s
2 cycles per second (2 Hz)
Lower frequency: fewer cycles per second
V
-V
0
t
1 s
5 cycles per second (5 Hz)
Higher frequency: more cycles per second
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THE SINE WAVE cont..
Relationship between Frequency and Period

The relationship between frequency ( f ) and period (T) are as
follows:





There is a reciprocal relationship between f and T.
The sine wave with longer period goes to fewer cycles in one
second.




T
f
1
=
f
T
1
=
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THE SINE WAVE cont..
Example 1:

1) The period of a certain sine wave is 10 ms. What is the frequency
2) The frequency of a sine wave is 60 Hz. What is the period?

Solution

1)


2)



Hz
x T
f 100
10 10
1 1
3
= = =

ms
f
T 7 . 16
60
1 1
= = =
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THE SINE WAVE cont..
Related Problem
1. A certain sine wave goes through four
cycles in 20 ms. What is the frequency?

2. If what is f ? s T 15 =
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6.4 PHASE RELATIONSHIPS
MATHEMATICAL FORMULA for SINE WAVE

General expression











u Sin V y
m
=
y
0
u
V
m
Phase shifted (lagging)
y
0
u
V
m
|
) ( | u = Sin V y
m
y
0 u
V
m
|
Phase shifted (leading)
) ( | u + = Sin V y
m
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PHASE RELATIONSHIPS cont..
Example 2:
Determine the equation for the waveform in the figure below if f = 60
Hz.
A I
m
4 =
A t Sin t i ) 120 377 ( 2 ) (
0
=
i(t)
0
t e
2
120
0
-2
i(t)
0
t e
4
50
0
-4
A I
m
2 =
usoid the of ument the t
s radians in frequency angular the
f
sin arg
/
377 ) 60 ( 2 2
=
=
= = =
e
e
t t e
) ( | u = Sin V y
m
A t Sin t i ) 40 377 ( 4 ) (
0
+ =
) ( | u + = Sin V y
m
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THE COSINE WAVE
COSINE WAVE

General expression











u Cos V v
m
=
u Sin V v
m
=
u Cos V v
m
=
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PEAK VALUE & PEAK-TO-PEAK
VALUE
Several ways to express the value of
the wave in terms of its voltage or
current magnitude.

Instantaneous Value, v
The value at any point in time on
sine/cosine wave.


Peak Value,___
The value of voltage or current at
the positive or negative maximum
(peak) wrt zero.

Peak-to-peak Value,____
Is the voltage or current from the
positive peak to the negative peak
of the waveform.
u Sin V v
p
=
u Cos V v
p
=
V ( V )
0
t
V
m
pp
V p V
p
V
p V
pp
V
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RMS or EFFECTIVE VALUE
AC waveform is only at its maximum value for an instant in
time, spending most of its time between peak currents.
rms is also referred to as the effective value.
The effective value of a sine wave is equal to 0.707 of the
peak value.

rms = 0.707 x peak

root mean square (rms) result of 0.707 can always tell
how effective an ac sine wave will be.
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RMS or EFFECTIVE VALUE cont..
Eg;
A dc source would be 10 A effective because it deliver power
continuously.
A 10 A ac source would only be 7.07 A effective, because it is at 10 A
for only a short period of time.
Unless stated, ac value of voltage/current are always given in rms
Effective Equivalent
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6.5 RMS and AVERAGE VALUE
The peak value of a sine wave can be converted to the corresponding root
mean square (rms) or effective value. The conversion process is as follows:
From the equation of sine wave,
u Sin V v
p
= (5.1)
Square the eq. (5.1)
u
2 2 2
Sin V v
p
= (5.2)
Obtain the mean or average value of
by dividing the area under a half-cycle
of the curve by .
The area is found by integration and
trigonometric identities.
2
v
t
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RMS and AVERAGE VALUE
(5.3)
( )
( )
2
0
2
2 sin
2
1
2
2 cos 1
2
sin
1
2
2
0
2
0
2
2
0
2
2
p
p
p
p
p
avg
V
V
V
d
V
d V
area
V
=
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
=
=
}
}
t
t
u u
t
u u
t
u u
t
t
t
t
t
Finally
p
p
avg rms
V
V
V V 707 . 0
2
2
= = = (5.4)
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The average value of the positive/negative alternation is found by taking either
the positive/negative alternation, and listing the amplitude or vector length of
current or voltage at 1
0
intervals.
Sum of these values divided by total number of values (averaging).
average = 0.637 x peak

AVERAGE VALUE
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AVERAGE VALUE
(5.5)
( )
p
p
p
p
avg
V
V
V
d V
area
V
637 . 0
2
cos
sin
1
0
0
=
=
=
=
=
}
t
u
t
u u
t
t
t
t
The average value is the total area under the half-cycle curve divided by the
distance in radians of the curve.
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REMEMBER !
p
p
rms
V
V
V 707 . 0
2
= =
p p avg
V V V 637 . 0
2
= =
t
T
f
1
=
f
T
1
=
u Sin V v
m
=
u Cos V v
m
=
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RMS and AVERAGE VALUE
Example 3: Find the period and frequency of the waveform. Then, find rms current, rms
voltage, Vp, Vpp and average voltage across R1. Voltage source is in rms value.
Vs
100 V
R1
R2
O k 0 . 1
O 560
Solution:
1. Period (T)
T = 10 ms
2. Frequency
f = 1/T = 100 Hz
3. Total resistance
O =
O + O =
k
k R
T
56 . 1
560 0 . 1
4. Use Ohms law to find rms current
mA
k
V
R
V
I
T
rms
rms
1 . 64
56 . 1
100
=
O
= =
5. The rms voltage across R1
V R I V
rms rms
1 . 64
1 ) ( 1
= =
6. Vp, Vpp and Vavg across R1
V
V
V
rms
p
66 . 90
707 . 0
) ( 1
= =
V x V
pp
32 . 181 ) 2 66 . 90 ( = =
V V V
p avg
75 . 57 637 . 0 = =
Vs
0
V
p
t
5 ms
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Example 4
V ) 10 50 cos( 12 ) ( + = t t v
Hz 958 . 7
1
is frequency The
s 1257 . 0
50
2 2
period The
rad/s 50 is frequency angular The
10 is phase The
V 12 Vm is amplitude The
: Solution
= =
= = =
=
=
=
T
f
T
t
e
t
e
|
o
Find the amplitude, phase, period , and frequency of the sinusoid