BTEC National Diploma

Unit 6: Electrical and Electronic

Principles
1
Unit code J/600/0255
Background Information on Units and Quantities
2
7 SI Base Units & Quantities
Unit
Name
Unit
Symbol
Base
Quantity
Quantity
Symbol
Dimension
Symbol
meter m length l L
kilogram kg mass m M
second s time t T
ampere A electric current I I
kelvin K thermodynamic
temperature
T
mole mol amount of substance n N
candela cd luminous intensity I
v
J
22 SI Special Derived Units
3
Derived quantity
Special
name
Special
Symbol
Expression in terms of
other SI units SI base units
plane angle radian rad m m
-1
= 1
solid angle steradian sr m
2
m
-2
= 1
frequency hertz Hz s
-1
force newton N m kg s
-2
pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m
2
m
-1
kg s
-2
energy, work, quantity of heat joule J N m m
2
kg s
-2
power, radiant flux watt W J/s m
2
kg s
-3
electric charge, quantity of electricity coulomb C s A
electric potential, potential
difference, electromotive force
volt V W/A m
2
kg s
-3
A
-1
capacitance farad F C/V m
-2
kg
-1
s
4
A
2
electric resistance ohm V/A m
2
kg s
-3
A
-2
electric conductance siemens S A/V m
-2
kg
-1
s
3
A
2
22 SI Special Derived Units (cont.)
4
Derived quantity Special name
Special
Symbol
Expression in terms of
other SI units SI base units
magnetic flux weber Wb V s m
2
kg s
-2
A
-1
magnetic flux density tesla T Wb/m
2
kg s
-2
A
-1
inductance henry H Wb/A m
2
kg s
-2
A
-2
Celsius temperature degree Celsius C K
luminous flux lumen lm cd sr cd sr
illuminance lux lx lm/m
2
m
-2
cd sr
activity (of a radionuclide) becquerel Bq s
-1
absorbed dose, specific energy
(imparted), kerma
gray Gy J/kg m
2
s
-2
dose equivalent, et al. sievert Sv J/kg m
2
s
-2
catalytic activity katal kat s
-1
mol
5
Electrical units and standards
The SI base unit for electrical measurements is the
ampere (A), the unit of electric current.

It is defined in terms of a hypothetical experiment
as that constant current which, if maintained in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of
negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter
apart in vacuum, would produce between these
conductors a force equal to 2 10
-7
newton per
meter of length.
6
The volt (V) is the unit of potential difference and
of electromotive force. It is defined as the
potential difference between two points of a
conducting wire carrying a constant current of 1
ampere (A) when the power dissipated between
these points is equal to 1 watt (W). From the
ampere and the volt, the ohm (W) is derived by
Ohm's law, and the other derived quantities follow
in a similar manner by the application of known
physical laws.
Ohm (W) is the unit of electrical resistance, equal
to 1 volt per ampere. The ohm is defined as the
resistance between two points of a conductor
when a constant potential difference of 1 volt,
applied to these points, produces in the conductor
a current of 1 ampere
7
The remaining units of electrical and magnetic
quantities
Coulomb (C): The unit of electric charge, equal to
1 ampere-second (As). The coulomb is the
quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a
current of 1 ampere.

[C = As] Q = I * t
Farad (F): The unit of capacitance, equal to 1
coulomb per volt. The farad is the capacitance of a
capacitor between the plates of which there
appears a potential difference of 1 volt when it is
charged by a quantity of electricity of 1 coulomb.

[F = C/V = As/V] C = Q/V
8
Henry (H): The unit of inductance, equal to 1
weber (Wb) per ampere. The henry is the
inductance of a closed circuit in which an
electromotive force of 1 volt is produced when the
electric current in the circuit varies uniformly at
the rate of 1 ampere per second.

[H = Wb/A = V/(A/s) = Vs/A] L = F/I
Siemens (S): The unit of electrical conductance
(the reciprocal of resistance), equal to 1 ampere
per volt.

[S = A/V] G = I/V
9
Tesla (T): The unit of magnetic flux density, equal
to 1 weber per square meter.

[T = Wb/m
2
] B = F/A
Weber (Wb): The unit of magnetic flux, equal to 1
volt-second. The weber is the magnetic flux which,
linking a circuit of one turn, would produce in it an
electromotive force of 1 volt if it were reduced to
zero at a uniform rate in 1 second.

[Wb = Vs]
10
DIMENSIONAL PREFIXES
Prefix Symbol Magnitude
exa E 10
18
peta P 10
15

tera T 10
12

giga G 10
9

mega M 10
6

kilo k 10
3

hecto h 10
2

deka da 10
1

deci d 10
-1

centi c 10
-2

milli m 10
-3

micro m 10
-6

nano n 10
-9

pico p 10
-12

femto f 10
-15

atto a 10
-18

10
0
= 1
10
1
= 10
10
2
= 10 * 10 = 100
10
3
= 10 * 10 * 10 = 1000
10
-1
= 1 / 10 = 0.1
10
-2
= 1 / 10 / 10 = 0.01
10
-3
= 1 / 10 / 10 / 10 = 0.001
Express 9.213 * 10
2
in decimal
number
Solve 5 * 10
2
+ 3.2 * 10
3

11
Ohm's law
Relationship between the potential difference
(voltage), electric current, and resistance in an
electric circuit. In 1827 Georg Simon Ohm
discovered that at constant temperature, the
current I in a circuit is directly proportional to the
potential difference V, and inversely proportional to
the resistance R, or I = V/R. Ohm's law may also
be expressed in terms of the electromotive force E
of an electric energy source, such as a battery, or E
= IR. In an alternating-current circuit, when the
combination of resistance and reactance, called
impedance Z, is constant, Ohm's law is applicable
and V/I = Z.
12
RESISTANCE NETWORKS
There are basically three types of circuit -- series,
parallel, and series and parallel circuit.
Series Circuit
The total voltage is the
sum of the voltage on
each component.
V
T
= V
1
+ V
2

The total resistance is equal
to the sum of the resistance
on each component.
R
T
= R
1
+ R
2

The total current is equal in
every component.
I
T
= I
1
= I
2

13
Example 1
What is the total voltage,
resistance and current?
First, we have to find out the total voltage using
equation V
0
= V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
+...+ V
n
, and then
resistance using equation R
0
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+...+
R
n
, and finally you can find out the current using
equation I
0
= I
1
= I
2
= I
3
= I
4
=...= I
n
.
Total voltage is 9 + 1 + 16 + 4 = 30 V
Total resistance is 30 + 10 + 40 + 20 = 100 ohm
Using ohm's law, I = V / R, then we can find out
the total current. I = 30 / 100 = 0.3 A
14
Example problem 1
What is the current through A and B?
What is the voltage drop across A, B and C?
What is the resistance of C?
What is the total resistance?
What is total current?
15
Parallel Circuit
The total voltage is equal
in every component.
V
T
= V
1
= V
2

The resistance is equal to
the product of resistance on
each component divided by
the sum of resistance of
each component.
R
T
= (R
1
*R
2
)/(R
1
+R
2
)

1/R
T
= 1/R
1
+ 1/R
2
The total current is equal
to the sum of current in
each component.
I
T
= I
1
+ I
2


16
Example 2
What is the total resistance
and voltage? And voltage
and current on A, B, and C?
In order to find out the total voltage, we have to find
out the total resistance. Using equation 1/R
0
= 1/R
1

+ 1/R
2
+...+ 1/R
n
, we can find out the total
resistance.
1/R = 1/15 + 1/15 + 1/30 = 5/30, R = 6 ohm
Then using ohm's law, V = I R, we can find out the
total voltage. V = 5A * 6W = 30 V
17
Using equation V
0
= V
1
= V
2
= V
3
=...= V
n
, we now
know the voltage on A, B, and C, which is 30 V
each. Using ohm's law again, we can find out the
current through A, B, and C.

I
A
= 30V/15W = 2 A,
I
B
= 30V/15W = 2 A,
I
C
= 30V/30W = 1 A .

When you add up all the current (using equation
I
0
= I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
+ I
4
+...+ I
n
), we get 5 A which is
the total current.
18
Example problem 2
What is the total resistance,
voltage, and current?
What is the voltage across A, B
and C? What is the current
through A, B, C, and D?
19
Series - Parallel Circuit
The total voltage is the voltage of series plus the
voltage of parallel.
V
T
= V
1
+ V
2
= V
1
+ V
3


The total resistance is the resistance of series plus
the resistance of parallel.
R
T
= R
1
+ [(R
2
*

R
3
) / (R
2
+ R
3
)]

The total current is equal to the current on series
and to the sum of the current of parallel circuit.
I
T
= I
1
= I
2
+ I
3

20
Example 3
What is voltage across A, B, and D?
What is current through A, B, C, and D?
What is resistance of C?
What is total current and resistance?
Using V
0
= V
1
= V
2
= V
3
=...= V
n
, for parallel
circuits, we know that the voltage on D is equal to
C, which is 80 V. We also know A and B have the
same voltage. Using the voltage law, we can find
out the voltage on A and B, which is 230 - 80 =
150 V each.
21
Now we get all the voltages on each component.
Using ohm's law, we can find out the current through
A, B, C, and D. I
A
= 150V/30W = 5 A; I
B
= 150V/30W
= 5 A; I
D
= 80V/40W = 2 A; I
C
= 10-2 = 8 A. The
sum of the current on A and B is equal to that of C
and D (I
0
= I
1
= I
2
= I
3
= I
4
=...= I
n
for serial circuit)
I
A
+I
B
= I
C
+I
D
.
The resistance of A+B is 15 ohm R
T
=(R
1
*R
2
)/(R
1
+R
2
)
The resistance of C is R
C
= 80V/8A = 10W. Therefore,
the resistance of C+D is 8W.
Total resistance and current of this circuit are
R = 15+8 = 23 W; I = 230V /23W = 10 A
22
RESISTOR COLOR CODE
23
Type of resistors
The most commonly used resistors all look the
same. They look like a small worm with coloured
stripes on the side. There are many types of
resistors available. The most common are ceramic
rod wound by copper wires on the inside. The
number of copper turns and the thickness of the
copper determine the resistance of the component.
The more the turns and lesser the thickness, the
more the resistance. There are also resistors with
spiral patterns of carbon, instead of the copper
winding. Such resistors are used for making
smaller value resistors.
24
Wire-wound Resistors
The resistors with a ceramic rod wound up with
copper wires are called wire-wound resistors. Some
wire-wound resistors have an aluminium case so
that they can be connected to heat sinks which
dissipate heat.
25
26
Carbon Composition Resistors
They are usual resistors with a resistive element in
the shape of a cylinder. The resistive element is a
mixture of carbon powder and ceramic. This mixture
is held together with the help of a resin. This
mixture is embedded with wire leads. This is then
attached to wires made of lead. The value of the
resistor can be found out by a method called colour
coding, which is painted onto the outer body of the
resistor.
If the concentration of carbon
increases, the resistance of the
component decreases. This type
of resistor is not used so
commonly now. Though this
resistor was highly reliable, their
overheating and overvoltage
characteristics are not so reliable.
27
Carbon film
This type of resistor is applicable for circuits
working under a range of temperatures. The
resistor is made by depositing a carbon film onto
an insulating substrate. They can operate at a
range from -55 C to 155 C. The voltage range
varies from 100 Volts to 650 Volts with a
resistance from 1 to 10 M.
28
This type of resistor was the backbone of the popular
surface mount device resistors used now. The names
differentiate in the manner in which the film is
applied onto the cylinder. For a thin film resistor,
vacuum deposition method is used to include the
resistive material onto the insulating substrate. This
type of resistor is commonly used for making printed
circuit boards. This type of resistor produces accurate
resistance as the whole process of its making can be
controlled.
Thin and Thick Film Resistors
29
Thick films are also produced in the same manner as
a thin film. But they also have some additional
compounds like glass and also a screen printing
liquid.
Both of them vary in their temperature ranges as
well as prices. Thin films are more expensive than
thick films.
30
Metal Film Resistors
This type of resistor is made by coating with nickel
chromium [NiCr]. The process of making this resistor
is similar to that of thin film resistors. The difference
will be in the compounds used. They are superior to
carbon resistors in several respects. Metal film
resistors do not change their value with age, and
their tolerance is generally better than carbon
resistors. The disadvantage is that it costs more.
31
ELECTRICAL POWER IN DC CIRCUITS
Power is the rate of doing work, or, of converting
energy from one form to another. Its units are
joules per second. One joule per second is called a
watt W (symbol P).
Example 1
If a machine converts 1,000 J of energy in 5 sec,
what is its power?

The power, P, is given by:

P =energy converted / time = 1, 000 J/5 s = 200W
32
When current flows through a wire, the wire gets
hot: i.e., power is dissipated. (This heat is why the
filament in a light bulb glows.)
This leads to the definition of potential difference:
when a current of one ampere flows through a
resistor, one watt of power is dissipated by the
resistor when a potential difference of one volt
appears across it.
In general the power, P, voltage and current are
related by: P = V * I

Example 2
If a current of 30A flows through a resistor to which
a voltage of 100V is applied, what power is
dissipated in the resistor?
From P = V I
P = 100V 30A = 3, 000W (or 3 kW.)
33
Multiple choice:
If a current of 3 A flows along a wire with a
potential difference of 4 V between the ends, how
much power is dissipated along the wire?
(a) 0W; (b) 7W; (c) 12W; (d) 4/3 W
There are other ways of writing the power P = V I.

Using Ohms law P = I R I = I
2
R (W)

or P = V V/R = V
2
/R (W)
Multiple choice:
What is the power consumption of a 100W resistor if a
50mA current flows through it?
(a) 0.25W; (b) 2.5x10
6
W; (c) 2.5x10
-
4
W; (d) 5x10
5
W
34
From Ohms law, there are three equivalent
expressions for the power dissipation in a circuit:

P = V I , P = V
2
/R, P = I
2
R
Exercise 1
(a) In the circuit if R = 6 and I = 3A, what is the
power?
(b) In the circuit if V = 8V and R = 2, what is the
power?
(c) Finally, what is the power if V = 8V and I = 0.25A?
R
I
V
35
Series and Parallel Circuits
In a series circuit:
The same current flows through each resistor. Hence
in the diagram the power dissipated in them are
P
1
= I
2
R
1
, and P
2
= I
2
R
2
, respectively and the total
power dissipated is
P
T
= I
2
(R
1
+ R
2
)

By Ohms law the voltage source is V = I(R
1
+ R
2
),
the power can also be written as P
T
= V
2
/(R
1
+ R
2
)
.
36
Example 3


In the series circuit
since 10W is twice as big as 5W, the power dissipated
in the 10W resistor will be twice that dissipated in the
5W resistor.
If I = 2A the power dissipation,
P = I
2
R, will be 2
2
10 = 40W in the 10W resistor
and 2
2
5 = 20W in the 5W resistor.
10W 5W
(a) If above R1 = 5W and R2 = 15W, how much
more power is used in the 15W resistor?
(b) If I = 0.8A, calculate the power dissipation in
each resistor.
(c) How much energy is dissipated over 30 minutes?
Exercise 2
37
Example 4

If two resistors are connected in parallel, the effective
resistance is less than either of the two individual
resistors. (This is because there are more ways for
the current to flow.)
The potential difference
across the two parallel
resistors is the same, V .
Hence the total power in the
resistors in parallel is
P
T
= V
2
/R
1
+ V
2
/R
2
= V
2
(R
1
+ R
2
)/R
1
R
2
(W)
38
Exercise 3
Consider a 10W and a 5W resistor connected in
parallel across a 2V source.
(a) What is the power dissipated in the 10W resistor?
(b) What is the power dissipated in the 5W resistor?
(c) How does the total power dissipated differ from
the case if the same resistors were connected in
series?
39
Example 5
The series circuit below represents a power source
with an internal resistor Rs. If a load resistor R is
connected across the terminals A and B, how does
the power to load, P
L
, depend upon R?
R
I
V
Rs
A B
The current I is
given by
V = I(Rs + R)
I = V/(Rs + R)
Using P
L
= I
2
R, the power
to load is thus
P
L
= V
2
R /(Rs + R)
2
P
L

R
Rs
40
Maximum Power:

In the curve above it is shown that the maximum
power across the load resistance is when R = Rs,
i.e., when the load resistance is equal to the
internal resistance of the source (perhaps a
battery or generator). This is called resistance
matching.
Exercise 4

The power to load is given by P
L
= V
2
R/(Rs + R)
2
.
(a) What is P
L
when R = Rs?
(b) What is P
L
when R = 100Rs?
(c) What is P
L
when R = 0.001Rs?
(d) The maximum power will be given when
dP
L
/dR=0, use the rule of differentiation to show
that the maximum is at R = Rs.
41
Short Circuit:

If there is no resistance between the terminals,
R = 0, the power to load is
P
L
= (V
2
0)/(Rs + 0)
2
= 0/Rs = 0 (W)
No power can be extracted from a short circuit:
there must be a resistance to extract power.
Open Circuit:

If the terminals are disconnected then there is an
infinite resistance, R = , and no current flows.
Again the power to load vanishes: a current must
flow to extract power.
42
RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTOR
Specific resistance is a constant for the type of
conductor material being considered at specified
temperature.
The resistance R of a conductor of uniform cross
section can be calculated as
This formula relates the resistance of a conductor
with its specific resistance (Wm), its length l (m),
and its cross-sectional area A (m
2
).
(W)
Conductor resistance increases with increased length
and decreases with increased cross-sectional area, all
other factors being equal.
43
Specific resistance at 20 deg C

Nichrome Alloy 112.2 (mW cm)
Nichrome V Alloy 108.1
Manganin Alloy 48.21
Constantan Alloy 45.38
Steel* Alloy 16.62
Platinum Element 10.5
Iron Element 9.61
Nickel Element 6.93
Zinc Element 5.90
Molybdenum Element 5.34
Tungsten Element 5.28
Aluminum Element 2.650
Gold Element 2.214
Copper Element 1.678
Silver Element 1.587
* = Steel alloy at 99.5 % iron, 0.5 % carbon
Specific Resistance
(r) is a property of
any conductive
material, which is
defined as
resistivity, a figure
used to determine
the end-to-end
resistance of a
conductor given
length and cross-
sectional area.
44
How much cross-sectional area of the aluminium
conductor has to be bigger than the cooper one if
both of them are of the same length and they
should perform electrically the same?
Example 1
R
cu
= R
al
= R
l
cu
= l
al
= l
R = r
cu
l/A
cu
= r
al
l/A
al
r
cu
/A
cu
= r
al
/A
al
A
al
= r
al
A
cu
/ r
cu
=

2.65 * A
cu
/ 1.678 = 1.58 A
cu

Cross-sectional area of the aluminium conductor
has to be 58% bigger than the cooper one.
45
Calculate the resistance of a 2 km length of aluminium
overhead power cable if the cross-sectional area of the
cable is 95 mm
2
.
Exercise 1
A wire of length 8 m and cross-sectional area 3 mm
2
has
a resistance of 0.16. If the wire is drawn out until its
cross-sectional area is 1 mm
2
, determine the resistance
of the wire.
Exercise 2
46
Temperature resistance dependence
In general, as the temperature of a material
increases, most conductors increase in resistance,
insulators decrease in resistance, whilst the
resistance of some special alloys remain almost
constant.
47
There are two types of temperature coefficient of
resistance: positive and negative.

A positive coefficient of resistance increases
resistance as the temperature rises, while a
negative coefficient of resistance decreases the
resistance as the temperature rises.
Positive
temperature
coefficient
Negative
temperature
coefficient
48
Some typical values of temperature coefficient of
resistance measured at 0C are given below:
Copper 0.0043/C
Aluminium 0.0038/C
Nickel 0.0062/C
Carbon -0.00048/C
Eureka 0.000 01/C

(Note that the negative sign for carbon indicates
that its resistance falls with increase of
temperature.)
49
Definition of temperature coefficient of resistance
Temperature coefficient of resistance is the ratio of
the change of resistance per degree C change of
temperature to the resistance of the same material
at some definite temperature.
Definite temperature at 0
o
C
If the resistance of a material at
0C is known the resistance at any
other temperature can be
determined from:
R
1
=R
0
(1+a
0
t
1
)
R
0
= resistance at 0C
R
1
= resistance at temperature t
1
C
a
0
= temperature coefficient of resistance at 0C
50
A coil of copper wire has a resistance of 100 when
its temperature is 0C. Determine its resistance at
70C if the temperature coefficient of resistance of
copper at 0C is 0.0043/C
Exercise 3
A carbon resistor has a resistance of 1k at 0C.
Determine its resistance at 80C. Assume that the
temperature coefficient of resistance for carbon at
0C is -0.0005/C
Exercise 4
51
Definite temperature at 20
0
C
If the resistance of a material at room temperature
(approximately 20C), R
20
, and the temperature
coefficient of resistance at 20C, a
20
, are known then
the resistance R
2
at temperature t
2
is given by:
R
2
=R
20
[1+a
20
(t
2
-20)]
R
2
is the resistance at t
2

R
20
resistance at 20
o
C
t
2
final temperature
a
20
temperature coefficient of
resistance at 20C
52
A copper cable at 20
o
C has a resistance of 90. The
temperature is raised and the resistance measured
reads 104. If the temperature coefficient of
resistance of copper at 20
o
C is 0.004/
o
C, calculate
the final temperature.
Exercise 5
Exercise 6
An aluminum overhead cable has a resistance of
100, when the effective daytime ambient
temperature is 68
o
C. During night, the effective
ambient temperature falls to 20
o
C. Calculate the
night time resistance if the temperature coefficient
of resistance of aluminum at 20
o
C is 0.0038/
o
C
53
Resistance at 0
o
C is not known
If the resistance at 0C is not known, but is known at
some other temperature t
1
, then the resistance at
any temperature can be found as follows:
R
1
/R
2
= (1+a
0
t
1
)/(1+a
0
t
2
)
R
1
is resistance at temperature 1
R
2
is resistance at temperature 2
t
1
lower temperature
t
2
upper temperature
a
0
temperature coefficient of resistance at 0C
54
Exercise 7
Exercise 8
A nickel conductor has a resistance of 250 when
its temperature is 25
o
C. If the temperature is
raised to 120
o
C, calculate the value of the final
resistance. Assume temperature co-efficient of
resistance of nickel at 0
o
C is 0.0062/
o
C.
An aluminum wire has a resistance of 100 when
the temperature is 10
o
C. A current flows through
the wire and the temperature rises such that the
resistance then reads 175. If the temperature
co-efficient of resistance of aluminum at 0
o
C is
0.0038/
o
C, calculate the temperature rise.
55
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CELLS
The term voltaic cell is defined as a combination of
materials used to convert chemical energy into
electrical energy. A voltaic or chemical cell consists
of two electrodes made of different types of metals
or metallic compounds placed in an electrolyte
solution.
A battery is a group of two or more connected voltaic
cells.
An electrode is a metallic compound, or metal, which
has an abundance of electrons (negative electrode -
anode) or an abundance of positive charges (positive
electrode - cathode).
56
An electrolyte is a solution which is capable of
conducting an electric current. The electrolyte
of a cell may be a liquid or a paste. If the electrolyte
is a paste, the cell is referred to as a dry cell; if the
electrolyte is a solution, it is called a wet cell.
An ampere-hour is defined as a current of one
ampere flowing for one hour. If you multiply the
current in amperes by the time of flow in hours, the
result is the total number of ampere-hours.
Ampere-hours are normally used to indicate the
amount of energy a battery can deliver.
57
The purpose of a battery is to store chemical energy
and to convert this chemical energy through the
chemical reaction into electrical energy when needed.
A voltaic cell develops a potential difference when
electrodes of two different metals are immersed in an
electrolyte. One electrode accumulates a positive
charge. The potential difference is due to the
difference in charge between the two electrodes.
58
Primary Cells
Cells that cannot be returned to good condition, or
recharged after their voltage output has dropped to
a value that is not usable, are called primary cells.
Dry cells that are used in flashlights and remote
controllers e.g. Leclanch Cells ( AA, AAA, C, D) or
mercury cells (button cells) are examples of primary
cells.
Secondary Cells
Cells that can be recharged to nearly their original
condition are called secondary cells. The most
common example of a secondary, or rechargeable
cell, is the lead-acid automobile battery.
59
Leclanch Cell
A electrolytic cell also known as a dry cell that uses a
moist paste rather than a liquid as an electrolyte. Dry
cells with a zinc cup for an anode, a carbon rod for a
cathode, and a paste made of powdered carbon,
Ammonium chloride, Zinc Chloride, and Manganese
dioxide for an electrolyte.
60
The Leclanch Cell (carbon-zinc) cell is one of the
oldest and most widely used types of dry cells. The
carbon in the battery is in the form of a rod in the
centre of the cell which acts as the positive terminal.
The case is made from zinc and acts as the negative
electrode. The electrolyte for this type of cell is a
chemical paste-like mixture which is housed between
the carbon electrode and the zinc case. The cell is
then sealed to prevent any of the liquid in the paste
from evaporating.
The advantage of a carbon-zinc battery is that it is
durable and very inexpensive to produce. It has a
good shelf life.
Disadvantages are high internal resistance and
limitation of 1.5 volts.
61
Mercury Cell
Mercury cells come in two types; one is a flat cell
that is shaped like a button, while the other
is a cylindrical cell that looks like a regular flashlight
battery. Each cell produces about 1.35 volts. These
cells are very rugged and have a relatively long shelf
life. The mercury cell has the advantage of
maintaining a fairly constant output under varying
load conditions. For this reason, they are used in
products such as electric watches, hearing aids,
cameras, and test instruments.
62
New silver-oxide cell
(zero-mercury, zero lead)
Silver-oxide cell
(conventional)
63
The Lead Acid Cells
consists of a series of
cells, with each cell
containing a lead
peroxide positive plate
and a lead negative
plate immersed in a
dilute sulphuric acid
solution. This sulphuric
Lead Acid Cells secondary cell
acid solution is known as
electrolyte. The whole arrangement is kept in a leak-
proof casing. Each cell delivers around 2 volts and
when six cells are connected in series there would
be 12 V.
64
When a lead-acid battery
is discharged, electrolyte
and the active material
on the plates of the
battery are consumed to
produce water and lead
sulphate.
When a lead-acid battery
is charged, electrical
energy is added to the
battery, causing the water
and lead sulphate to be
consumed and produce
electrolyte and active
material.
65
Voltage and Specific Gravity During Charge and
Discharge
66
Nickel Cadmium Cell - secondary cell
The nickel-cadmium cell is a secondary cell, and the
electrolyte is potassium hydroxide. The negative
electrode is made of nickel hydroxide, and the
positive electrode is made of cadmium hydroxide.
The nominal voltage of a nickel-cadmium cell is 1.25
volts. The nickel-cadmium battery has the advantage
of being a dry cell that is a true storage battery with
a reversible chemical reaction (i.e., it can be
recharged). The nickel-cadmium battery is a rugged,
dependable battery. It gives dependable service
under extreme conditions of temperature, shock, and
vibration. Due to its dependability, it is ideally suited
for use in portable communications equipment.
67
INTERNAL RESISTANCE, EMF, TERMINAL VOLTAGE
Internal resistance in a chemical cell is due mainly to
the resistance of the electrolyte between electrodes.
Any current in the battery must flow through the
internal resistance. The internal resistance is in
series with the voltage of the battery (EMF), causing
an internal voltage drop.
With no current flow, the voltage
drop is zero; thus, the full battery
voltage (EMF) is developed across
the output terminals (V
B
). If a
load is placed on the battery, load
resistance (R
L
) is in series with
internal resistance (R
i
).
68
When current flows in the circuit (I
L
), the internal
voltage drop (I
L
*

R
i
) drops the terminal voltage
of the battery. Thus, internal resistance reduces
both the current and voltage available to the load.
V
L
= EMF
B
I
L
*
R
i
69
SERIES, PARALLEL AND SERIES-PARALLEL
COMBINATION
When several cells are connected in series, the total
voltage output of the battery is equal to the sum of the
individual cell voltages. In the example of
the battery where four 1.5V cells provide a total of
6 volts. When we connect cells in series, the positive
terminal of one cell is connected to the negative
terminal of the next cell. The current flow through a
battery connected in series is the same as for one cell.
R
i
=R
i1
+R
i2
+R
i3
+R
i4
+R
i5
(W)
E =E
1
+E
2
+E
3
+E
4
+E
5
(V)
70
Cells connected in parallel, give the battery a greater
current capacity. When cells are connected in parallel,
all the positive terminals are connected together, and
all the negative terminals are connected together. The
total voltage output of a battery connected in parallel
is the same as that of a single cell. Cells connected in
parallel have the same effect as increasing the size of
the electrodes and electrolyte in a single cell.
E=E
1
=E
2
=E
3
(V)
R
i
=

(W)
R
i
=R
i1
=R
i2
=R
i3
(W)
R
i

3
71
The total voltage is equal to the sum of the voltages
of each series connected cells. In our case 4.5 V.
Serial parallel combination
72
METHOD OF CHARGING
Classification by application
Main power source Stand by power source
Constant
voltage
Constant
voltage/
Constant
current
Two step
constant
voltage
Compensating
(trickle/floating )
charge
73
Constant Voltage: A constant voltage charger is
basically a DC power supply which in its simplest
form may consist of a step down transformer from
the mains with a rectifier to provide the DC voltage to
charge the battery. The lead-acid cells used for cars
and backup power systems typically use constant
voltage chargers. In addition, lithium-ion cells often
use constant voltage systems, although these usually
are more complex with added circuitry to protect both
the batteries and the user safety.
Constant Current: Constant current chargers vary the
voltage they apply to the battery to maintain a
constant current flow, switching off when the voltage
reaches the level of a full charge. This design is
usually used for nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal
hydride cells or batteries.
74
Constant voltage / constant current method
This method charges the battery by controlling the
current at 0.4 Ah and controlling the voltage at
2.45V/cell(unit battery) at room temperature of 200C
to 250C. Proper charging time is 6 to 12 hours
depending of the discharge rate.
75
Constant voltage / constant current method
Two step constant voltage charge control method
uses two constant-voltage devices. At the initial
stage, the battery is charged by the first constant
voltage device of high setup voltage. When the
charge current, the value of which is detected by
the current detection
circuit, has reduced to
the present value, the
device is switched
over to the second low
setup voltage, for
trickle charge voltage.
76
Flooded Lead-Acid battery charging typically have a IUI
charge profile of the following:
Bulk charge (I): Initially the battery is charged at a constant
current rate until the cell voltage reaches a preset value -
normally a voltage near to that at which gassing occurs.
Constant Voltage (U): When the preset voltage has been
reached, the charger switches into the constant voltage
phase and the current drawn by the battery will gradually
drop until it reaches another preset level.
Equalize (I): Finally the charger switches again into the
constant current mode and the voltage continues to rise up
to a new higher preset limit when the charger is switched off.
This last phase is used to equalize the charge on the
individual cells in a gassing process.
Method of charging lead-acid battery
77
is a measure (typically in Amp-hr) of the charge
stored by the battery, and is determined by the mass
of active material contained in the battery. The more
electrolyte and electrode material there is in the cell,
the greater the capacity of the cell. Thus a small cell
has less capacity than a larger cell, given the same
chemistry
The battery capacity represents the maximum
amount of energy that can be extracted from the
battery under certain specified conditions. However,
the actual energy storage capabilities of the battery
can vary significantly from the "nominal" rated
capacity, as the battery capacity depends strongly on
the age and past history of the battery, the charging
or discharging regimes of the battery and the
temperature.
Battery capacity
78
Efficiency of a Lead Acid Cell
ampere-hour efficiency =
output(discharge), Ah x 100%
input (charge), Ah
=
(around 85%, for good battery)
watt-hour efficiency =
average discharge, Wh x 100%
average charge, Wh
=
(around 70%, for good battery)
79
Example 1
Discharged 12V battery is charged for 10h at 12A, at
average charging terminal voltage of 15V. When
connected to the load, a current of 10A for 8h at an
average terminal voltage of 12V discharges the
battery. Find out the ampere-hour and watt-hour
efficiency.
ampere-hour efficiency =
10 x 8 x 100%
10 x 12
=66.7%
watt-hour efficiency =
10 x 8 x 12 x100%
10 x 12 x 15
=53.3%
80
MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM
There are two theories that explain magnetism. One
states that magnet is is made up of a very large
number of small, magnetized particles. When a bar
of iron is not magnetized, the small magnetic
particles are arranged in a random manner. When
the bar of iron becomes a magnet, the magnetic
particles are aligned so that their individual magnetic
effects add together to form a strong magnet.
Demagnetized iron Magnetized iron (saturated)
81
The other theory of magnetism is associated with
the electron. The orbiting electrons cause circulating
currents and form microscopic magnetic dipoles. In
addition, both the electrons and the nucleus of an
atom rotate (spin) on their own axes with certain
magnetic dipole moments.
orbital motion spin of an electron
82
In the absence of an external magnetic field the
magnetic dipoles of the atoms of most materials
(except permanent magnets) have random
orientations, resulting in no net magnetic moment.
The application of an external magnetic field cause
both an alignment of magnetic moments of the
spinning electrons and an induced magnetic moment
due to a charge in orbital motion of electrons.
83
A fundamental law of magnetism state that unlike
poles attract each other and like poles repel each
other.
84
84
Magnetic flux
The direction of a line of magnetic flux at any point in
a non magnetic medium, such as air, is that of the
north seeking pole of a compass needle placed at that
point.
Each line of magnetic flux forms a closed loop.
Lines of magnetic flux never intersect
Lines of magnetic flux are like stretched elastic cords,
always trying to shorten themselves.
Lines of magnetic flux which are parallel and in the
same direction repel one other and vise versa.
Characteristics of lines of magnetic flux are:
Magnetic flux is given symbol F, and is measure of
the magnetic field: its unit is the weber [Wb]
85
Magnetic Field
Currents produce magnetic fields, a phenomenon
described mathematically by the Biot-Savart Law and
Ampre's Law. The magnetic field generated by a
current travels in a circular path around the current in
a plane perpendicular to the flow of charge i.e.
current.
It is a unique and fundamental property of magnetic
field that, unlike electric field, does not begin on a
charge and end on a charge. On the contrary,
magnetic fields close in on themselves, forming a
circular field path.
86
Right hand rule
The magnetic field in space around an electric current
is proportional to the electric current which serves as
its source, just as the electric field in space is
proportional to the charge which serves as its source.
(T)
m
0
permeability of free space or vacuum
=4p 10
-7
(H/m)
87
Magnetomotive force
I
N
F
Magnetomotive force symbol F, is the force which
establish magnetic flux in the magnetic circuit (its
analogy in the electric circuit is e.m.f. which establish
a current in the electrical circuit).
F = N x I (Ampere-turn)
88
Magnetic field intensity (strength)
Magnetic field intensity, symbol H is defined as m.m.f.
per unit length of the magnetic circuit
I
l
H =
F
l
N x I
=
l
[
A
m
]
F = H x
l
A
[ ]
= H x
l
A
[ ]
N x I
89
Magnetic flux density
Magnetic flux density symbol B, is the amount of flux
passing through unit area perpendicular to the
direction of the flux.
The unit of flux density is the tesla.
T =
Wb
m
2
B
=
F
[ ]
A
F
A
90
Permeability
Permeability symbol (m) is the specific measure of a
material's acceptance of magnetic flux, analogous to
the specific resistance of a conductive material (),
except inverse (greater permeability means easier
passage of magnetic flux, whereas greater specific
resistance means more difficult passage of electric
current).
Permeability of free space or vacuum and non
magnetic materials, symbol m
0
is defined as
m
0
=
B
H
= 4
p
10
-7
[
H
m
]
91
For ferromagnetic material permeability increases by
factor m
r
, called relative permeability, where m
r
> 1
(up to 7000 and even more).
B(T)
1.4
0
0
10000
H(A/m)
cast iron
cast steel
m
r

800
0
0
10000
H(A/m)
cast iron
cast steel
Absolute permeability
=
B
H
= m
r

m
0
m B
= m
r
m
0
H
X
92
Example 1
A coils of 200 turns is wound uniformly over a
wooden ring having a mean circumference of 600 mm
and a uniform cross sectional area of 500 mm2. If the
current through the coil is 4 A, calculate:
(a) the magnetic field strength,
(b) the flux density, and
(c) the total flux
H =
N x I
l
=
200 x 4
0.6
= 1333 A/m
B
=
m
r
m
0
H = 1 x 4p10
-7
x 1333 = 1.675 mT
F = B x A = 1675 x 10
-6
x 500 x 10
-6
= 0.8375 mWb
93
E = I * R F = F * S
Resistance, R [W]
Reluctance, S [A / Wb]
Current, I [A] Flux, F [ Wb]
Electromotive force, E [V] Magnetomotive force, F [A]
Electric circuit Magnetic circuit
Permeability, m [H / m] Conductance, G [S]
Comparison of magnetic and electric circuit
Reluctance S
F = B * A [ T * m
2
= Wb ]
F = H * l [ A / m * m = A ]
S =
F
F
=
H*l
B*A
=
1
m
*
l
A
1
m
r
* m
o
*
l
A
=
In electrical circuit resistance
=
r *
l
A
[
A
Wb
]
[ W ]
R
94
Exercise 1
An iron circuit with a small air gap cut in it. A 6000
turn coil carries a current I=20 mA which sets up a
flux within the iron and across the air gap. If the iron
cross section is 0.810
-4
m
2
, the mean length of flux
path in iron is 0.15 m, m
r
=800 in iron and air gap
length is 0.75 mm, calculate the air gap flux density.
It may be assumed that the flux lines flow straight
across the air gap, i.e. air gap cross section is also
0.810
-4
mm
2
.
Answer: 0.16 T
95
Electromagnetic induction
Faraday and Henry have discovered that a voltage can
be induced in a conductor which is moving relative to
an external magnetic field. A current will flow if a
complete circuit is present.
Whenever the magnetic field in the region of a
conductor is moving, or changing in magnitude, such
that magnetic field lines are moving across the
conductor, an electric current is induced in the
conductor, if the conductor is part of a complete
circuit.
96
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states that:
E
= N -
dF
dt
N is number of turns
The emf induced in an electric circuit always acts in
such a direction that the current it drives around the
circuit opposes the change in magnetic flux which
produces the emf.
dF
dt
is rate of change of flux linkages
Lenzs gives the direction of the induced emf saying:
[ V ]
E is the electromotive force (emf) in volts
F is the magnetic flux in weber
97
Three principal methods of inducing an e.m.f.
1. Self induction
dt
t d
N t e
) (
) (
f
- =
98
2. Induction by motion
v B
dt
d
e = - = l
f
99
2. Induction by motion (rotation)
A = A cos a
A
) cos (
) (
t A B
dt
d
N
dt
d
N t e
w
f

- = - =
t A B N t e
w w
sin ) (
=
100
3. Mutual induction
N
2
dt
t d
N t e
) (
) (
2 2
f
- =
101
Force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic
field
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, there is an interaction between the
magnetic field produced by the current and the
permanent field, which leads to a force being
experienced by the conductor.
F = B l I (N)
102
Force between parallel current-carrying conductors
If currents pass along two parallel wires, each wire
will set up a magnetic field and the fields will interact
The force is directly
proportional to the
currents I
1
and I
2

and length l, and
inversely proportional
to distance d.
F =
m
0
I
1
I
2
2 p
d
l
[
N
]
103
AC and DC
DC stands for Direct Current, meaning voltage or
current that maintains constant polarity or direction,
respectively, over time.
AC stands for Alternating Current, meaning voltage
or current that changes polarity or direction,
respectively, over time.
104
An alternating current is thus one which rises in one
direction to a maximum value, before falling to zero
and repeating in the opposite direction. Instead of
drifting steadily in one direction, the electrons
forming the current move backwards and forwards
in the conductor.
The time taken for
an alternating
quantity to complete
its pattern (to flow in
both directions and
then return to zero)
is called the periodic
time (symbol T) for
the system, which is
said to complete one
cycle in this time.
105
The number of complete cycles traced out in a given
time is called the frequency (symbol f ), usually
expressed in hertz (Hz), which are cycles per second
(c/s). If there are f cycles in one second, each cycle
takes 1/f seconds, so that
) (
1
Hz
T
f = ) (
1
s
f
T =
A frequency of 50 Hz is the standard for the supply
system in many parts of the world, including the
Malta, but 60 Hz systems are also common for mains
supplies.
) ( 02 . 0
50
1 1
s
f
T = = =
106
Advantages of AC systems
(a) An alternating-current generator (often called an
alternator) is more robust, less expensive, requires
less maintenance, and can deliver higher voltages
than its DC counterpart.
(b) The power loss in a transmission line depends on
the square of the current carried(P = I
2
R). If the
voltage used is increased, the current is decreased,
and losses can be made very small. The simplest way
of stepping up the voltage at the sending end of a
line, and stepping it down again at the receiving end,
is to use transformers, which will only operate
efficiently from AC supplies.
(c) Three-phase AC induction motors are cheap,
robust and easily maintained.
107
(d) Energy meters, to record the amount of electrical
energy used, are much simpler for AC supplies than
for DC supplies.
(e) Discharge lamps (fluorescent, sodium, mercury
vapour etc.) operate more efficiently from AC
supplies, although filament lamps are equally
effective on either type of supply.
(f) Direct-current systems are subject to severe
corrosion, which is hardly present with AC supplies.
108
Peak, average and rms values of sinusoidal waves
The alternating current or voltage changes
continuously, so that it is not possible to state its
value in the same simple terms that can be used for
a direct current.
Instantaneous values are the values at particular
instants of time, and will be different for different
instants. Symbols for instantaneous values are small
symbols,v(t) for voltage, i(t) for current
Maximum or peak values are the greatest values
reached during alternation, usually occurring once in
each half-cycle. Maximum values are indicated by U
m

for voltage, I
m
for current and so on.
109
Average or mean value is the average value of the
current or voltage. If an average value is found over
a full cycle, the positive and negative half-cycles will
cancel out to give a zero result if they are identical.
In such cases it is customary to take the average
value over a half-cycle. Symbols used are U
av
for
voltage I
av
for current.
time(ms)
volts(V)
0
0
0.25
45
0.5
72
0.75
91
time(ms)
volts(V)
1.0
104
1.25
118
1.5
142
1.75
185
time(ms)
volts(V)
2.0
240
2.25
278
2.5
295
2.75
300
time(ms)
volts(V)
3.25
248
3.5
195
3.75
85
4.0
0
110
The average value of voltage will be the average
length of lines (expressed in volts). To find this, we
add the voltage represented by each line and divide
by the number of lines.
) ( 157
17
0 85 195 248 280 300 295 278 240 185 142 118 104 91 72 45 0
V Uav =

=
The effective or root mean square (RMS) value of
the system is the square root of the average value
of the squares of the instantaneous values. The
symbols used for RMS values are U, I.
) ( 6 . 186
17
0 85 195 248 280 300 295 278 240 185 142 118 104 91 72 45 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
V U =

=
111
112
Sinusoidal waveforms
external
prime mover
Loop
connected to
slip rings
rotates in
magnetic
field
Flemings
right hand
rule
113
Induced EMF
t NBA t e w wsin ) ( =
t E t e w sin ) ( =
f p w 2 =
Since the circumference of a circle is 2pradius,
there are 2p radians in 360

, so 1 radian =
360/(2p) = 57.3 approximately.
The total angular movement after t seconds of a
wire loop rotating at f revolutions per second and
giving an output of f cycles per second will be 2pft
radians.
114
Peak, average and rms values of sinusoidal waves
A graph of E
m
sin , is referred to as a sine wave,
and is said to be sinusoidal in shape.
115
average value =2 maximum value/p
=0.637 maximum value
E
avg
= (2/p )E
max
=0.637 x E
max
RMS value = maximum value/2
=0.707 maximum value
E = E
max
/ 2 (V)

form factor =RMS value/average value
=0.707E
max
/0.637 E
max
= 1.11
116
Example 1
Find the maximum and average values for a 230 V
supply.
E
max
= 2 E = 1.4142 * 230 = 325.27 V
E
avg
= E /form factor = 230 / 1.11 = 207.21 V
or
E
avg
= (2/p )E
max
=0.637 x 325.27 = 207.2 V

117
Concept of capacitance
Whenever an electric voltage exists between two
separated conductors, an electric field is present
within the space between those conductors.
Capacitors are components designed to take
advantage of this phenomenon by placing two
conductive plates (usually metal) in close proximity
with each other. There are many different styles of
capacitor construction, each one suited for particular
ratings and purposes.
118
When a voltage is applied across the two plates of a
capacitor, a concentrated field flux is created
between them, allowing a significant difference of
free electrons (a charge) to develop between the two
plates.
Because capacitors store the potential energy of
accumulated electrons in the form of an electric field,
they behave quite differently than resistors (which
simply dissipate energy in the form of heat) in a
circuit. Energy storage in a capacitor is a function of
the voltage between the plates, as well as other
factors.
119
Factors affecting capacitance
There are three basic factors of capacitor construction
determining the amount of capacitance created. These
factors all dictate capacitance by affecting how much
electric field flux (relative difference of electrons
between plates) will develop for a given amount of
electric field force (voltage between the two plates).
1. Plate area
2. Plate spacing
3. Dielectric material
C =
e A
d
C = Capacitance in Farads
e = Permittivity of dielectric
(absolute, not relative)
A = Area of plate overlap in
square meters
d = Distance between
plates in meters
(F)
120
Relative permittivity means the permittivity of a
material, relative to that of a pure vacuum.
The greater the number, the greater the permittivity
of the material. Glass, for instance, with a relative
permittivity of 7, has seven times the permittivity of
a pure vacuum, and consequently will allow for the
establishment of an electric field flux seven times
stronger than that of a vacuum, all other factors
being equal.
121
Material Relative permittivity (dielectric constant)
Vacuum ------------------------- 1.0000
Air ---------------------------- 1.0006
PTFE, FEP ("Teflon") ----------- 2.0
Polypropylene ------------------ 2.20 to 2.28
ABS resin ---------------------- 2.4 to 3.2
Polystyrene -------------------- 2.45 to 4.0
Waxed paper -------------------- 2.5
Transformer oil ---------------- 2.5 to 4
Hard Rubber -------------------- 2.5 to 4.80
Wood (Oak) --------------------- 3.3
Silicones ---------------------- 3.4 to 4.3
Bakelite ----------------------- 3.5 to 6.0
Quartz, fused ------------------ 3.8
Wood (Maple) ------------------- 4.4
Glass -------------------------- 4.9 to 7.5
122
"Ohms Law" for a capacitor
Capacitors do not have a stable resistance as
conductors do. However, there is a definite
mathematical relationship between voltage and
current for a capacitor, as follows:
i = C
du
dt
i = instantaneous current through the capacitor
C = capacitance in Farads
du/dt = instantaneous rate of voltage change
(volts per second)
123
The capacitor acts as a LOAD
to the rest of
the circuit
increasing
voltage
Energy being absorbed
by the capacitor from
the rest of the circuit -
charging
The capacitor acts as a SOURCE
to the rest of
the circuit
decreasing
voltage
Energy being released
by the capacitor to the
rest of the circuit -
discharging
124
Capacitors act somewhat like secondary-cell
batteries when faced with a sudden change in
applied voltage: they initially react by producing a
high current which tapers off over time.
A fully discharged capacitor initially acts as a short
circuit (current with no voltage drop) when faced
with the sudden application of voltage. After
charging fully to that level of voltage, it acts as an
open circuit (voltage drop with no current).
In a resistor-capacitor charging circuit, capacitor
voltage goes from nothing to full source voltage
while current goes from maximum to zero, both
variables changing most rapidly at first, approaching
their final values slower and slower as time goes on.
125
126
127
Series and parallel capacitors
When capacitors are
connected in series, the
total capacitance is less
than any one of the series
capacitors individual
capacitances.
C
T
=
C
1
x C
2
C
1
+ C
2
C
T
=
1
1
C
1
+
1
C
1
+..
1
C
n
When capacitors are
connected in parallel, the
total capacitance is the
sum of the individual
capacitors capacitances.
C
T
= C
1
+ C
2
128
Capacitors, like all electrical components, have
limitations which must be respected for the sake of
reliability and proper circuit operation.
Working voltage: Since capacitors are nothing more
than two conductors separated by an insulator (the
dielectric), one has to pay attention to the maximum
voltage allowed across it. If too much voltage is
applied, the breakdown rating of the dielectric
material may be exceeded, resulting in the capacitor
internally short-circuiting.
Polarity: Some capacitors are manufactured so they
can only tolerate applied voltage in one polarity but
not the other. This is due to their construction: the
dielectric is a microscopically thin layer of insulation
deposited on one of the plates by a DC voltage during
manufacture. These are called electrolytic capacitors,
and their polarity is clearly marked.
129
Resistance, Capacitance and Inductance in AC circuits
Resistance in AC circuit
Because the resistor simply and directly resists the
flow of electrons at all periods of time, the
waveform for the voltage drop across the resistor is
exactly in phase with the waveform for the current
through it.
130
The power dissipated by the resistor
The power is never a negative value. This consistent
polarity of power tells us that the resistor is always
dissipating power, taking it from the source and
releasing it in the form of heat energy. Whether the
current is positive or negative, a resistor still
dissipates energy.
Average power
P = U
rms
x I
rms
(W)
131
Inductance in AC circuits
Inductors oppose changes in current through them,
by dropping a voltage directly proportional to the rate
of change of current. u=L (di /dt)
In accordance with Lenz's Law, this induced voltage is
always of such a polarity as to try to maintain current
at its present value. That is, if current is increasing in
magnitude, the induced voltage will push against
the electron flow; if current is decreasing, the polarity
will reverse and push with the electron flow to
oppose the decrease. This opposition to current
change is called reactance, rather than resistance.
132
The instantaneous power
Because instantaneous power is the product of the
instantaneous voltage and the instantaneous current
(p = i x e), the power equals zero whenever the
instantaneous current or voltage is zero. Negative
power means that the inductor is releasing power back
to the circuit, while a positive power means that it is
absorbing power from the circuit. Since the positive
and negative power cycles are equal in magnitude and
duration over time, the inductor releases just as much
power back to the circuit as it absorbs over the span of
a complete cycle.
Average power = 0
133
The power that surges back and forth in thus manner
is called reactive power (Q) to distinguish it from the
active power (P). The unit of reactive power is VAr,
while the unit for active power is W. Both powers
function independently of each other and they can
not be converted into the other and they have to be
treated as separate quantities in electrical circuit.
134
This opposition to alternating current is similar to
resistance, but different in that it always results in a
phase shift between current and voltage, and it
dissipates zero power.
Because of the differences, it has a different name:
reactance. Reactance to AC is expressed in ohms, just
like resistance is, except that its mathematical symbol
is X instead of R. To be specific, reactance associate
with an inductor is usually symbolized by the capital
letter X with a letter L as a subscript, like this: X
L
.
The exact formula for determining reactance is as
follows:
X
L
= 2pf L (W)
135
Capacitance in AC circuits
Whereas resistors allow a flow of
electrons through them directly
proportional to the voltage drop,
capacitors oppose changes in voltage
by drawing or supplying current as
they charge or discharge to the new
voltage level. The flow of electrons
through a capacitor is directly
proportional to the rate of change of
voltage across the capacitor.
i = C
de
dt
136
The instantaneous power
Average power = 0
Capacitor does not dissipate power as it reacts against
changes in voltage; it merely absorbs and releases
power, alternately.
137
Since capacitors conduct current in proportion to
the rate of voltage change, they will pass more
current for faster-changing voltages (as they charge
and discharge to the same voltage peaks in less
time), and less current for slower-changing voltages.
What this means is that reactance in ohms for any
capacitor is inversely proportional to the frequency of
the alternating current.
X
C
=
1
2pf C
The relationship of capacitive reactance to frequency
is exactly opposite from that of inductive reactance.
Capacitive reactance (W) decreases with increasing AC
frequency. Conversely, inductive reactance (W)
increases with increasing AC frequency.
(W)
138
Inductors oppose faster changing currents by
producing greater voltage drops; capacitors oppose
faster changing voltage drops by allowing greater
currents.
139
Concept of reactance and impendence
Resistance is essentially friction against the motion
of electrons. It is present in all conductors to some
extent (except superconductors!), most notably in
resistors. When alternating current goes through a
resistance, a voltage drop is produced that is in-
phase with the current.
Resistance is mathematically symbolized by the
letter R and is measured in the unit of ohms (W).

140
Reactance is essentially inertia against the motion of
electrons. It is present anywhere electric or
magnetic fields are developed in proportion to
applied voltage or current, respectively; but most
notably in capacitors and inductors. When
alternating current goes through a pure reactance, a
voltage drop is produced that is 90
o
out of phase
with the current. Reactance is mathematically
symbolized by the letter X and is measured in the
unit of ohms (W).
141
Impedance is a comprehensive expression of any and
all forms of opposition to electron flow, including both
resistance and reactance. It is present in all circuits,
and in all components.
When alternating current goes through an
impedance, a voltage drop is produced that is
somewhere between 0
o
and 90
o
out of phase with the
current. Impedance is mathematically symbolized by
the letter Z and is measured in the unit of ohms
(W), in complex form.
I
R
R (W) U

I
L
jX
L
(W)
U

I
C
-jX
C
(W)
U

I
R
=

U
R
I
L
= -j

U
wL
I
C
= jUwC

142
AC series circuits
Series resistor-inductor circuits
Z
total
= (50
0
) + (3.14290
0
)
X
L
= 2pf L = 2 x p x 50 x 0.01 = 3.142W
5 W + j3.142 W
Z
total
= 5
2
+ 3.142
2
=
5.9W
32.1
0
Z
total
= R + jX
L
j = arc tan
X
L
R
j = arc tan
3.142

5
j = 32.1
0
Z
total
=
143
X
L
= 3.142W; R = 5W; Z = 5.9W
I =
E
T
Z
=
10

5.9
= 1.695 A
E
L
= I x X
L
= 1.695 x 3.142
E
R
= I x R = 1.695 x 5 = 8.48 V
E
L
= 5.33 V
Active power
P = I
2

R
P = 14.37 W
Reactive power
Q = I
2

X
L

Q = 9.03 VAr
Apparent power
S = 16.97 VA
S = P
2
+ Q
2
144
j
S (VA)
P (W)
Q (VAr)
Q = P x tan (j)
Power triangle
cos j =
P
S
S = P
2
+ Q
2
The term cos j is
referred to as the
power factor. Power
factor is equal to 0
for purely inductive
load and equal to 1
for purely resistive
load. In every other
case 0 < pf < 1.
in our case p.f. = 0.847
ind
(cos 32.1
0
)
Power factor
145
Series resistor-capacitor circuits
X
C
= 1/2pfC = 1/(2 x p x 50 x 100x10
-6
) = 31.83 W
Z
total
= (50
o
) + (31.83-90
0
)
Z
total
= R - jX
C
Z
total
=5 W - j3.142 W

Z
total
= 5
2
+ 31.83
2
=
32.22 W
81.1
0
j = tan
-1
X
C
R
j = tan
-1
31.83

5
j = 81.1
0
146
X
C
= 31.83 W; R = 5 W;
Z = 32.22 W
I =
E
T
Z
=
10

32.22
= 0.31 A
E
C
= I x X
C
= 0.31 x 31.83
E
C
= 9.87 V
E
R
= I x R = 0.31 x 5 = 1.55 V
Active power
P = I
2

R = 0.31
2
x 5
P = 0.481 W
Reactive power
Q = I
2
X
C
= 0.31
2
x 31.83
Q = 3.06 VAr
Apparent power
S = 3.1 VA
S = P
2
+ Q
2
147
j
S (VA)
P (W)
Q (VAr)
Q = P x tan (j)
Power triangle
cos j =
P
S
S = P
2
+ Q
2
The term cos j is
referred to as the
power factor. Power
factor is equal to 0
for purely capacitive
load and equal to 1
for purely resistive
load. In every other
case 0 < p.f. < 1.
in our case p.f. = 0.155
cap
(cos 81.1
0
)
Power factor
148 148
Series inductor-capacitor circuits
X
C
= 1/2pfC = 1/(2 x p x 50 x 80x10
-6
) = 39.79 W
Z
total
= (31.4290
o
) + (39.79-90
0
)
Z
total
= jX
L
- jX
C
Z
total
=j31.42 W j39.79 W

Z
total
= -j8.37

=
8.37 W
-90
0
X
L
= 2pf L = 2 x p x 50 x 0.1 = 31.42 W
149
X
L
= 31.42 W; X
C
= 39.79 W;
Z = 8.37 W
I =
E
T
Z
=
10

8.37
= 1.195 A
E
C
= I x X
C
= 1.195 x 39.79
E
C
= 47.55 V
E
L
= I x X
L
= 1.195 x 31.42
= 37.55 V
Active power
P = 0.00 W
Reactive power
Q = I
2
Z = 1.195
2
x 8.37
Q = 11.95 VAr
Apparent power
S = 11.95 VA
S = P
2
+ Q
2
150
Effect of frequency on inductive reactance
X
L
= 2pf L (W)
As the frequency is increased (reading to the right),
the inductive reactance is shown to increase in
direct proportion.
151
Effect of frequency on capacitive reactance
X
C
= 1/2pfC (W)
As the frequency is increased (reading to the right),
the inductive reactance is shown to decrease in
inverse proportion.
152
Resonance in series circuits
When a state of resonance is reached (capacitive
and inductive reactance equal), the two impedances
cancel each other out and the total impedance drops
to zero.
f = 159.155 Hz
X
L
= 2pfL = j100 (W)
X
C
= 1/(2pfC) = -j100 (W)
I = V/Z = V/ R
2
+(jX
L
-jX
C
)
2
= V/R = 1A
153
This series-resonant effect, with inductive and
capacitive reactances equal and opposite, may be
brought about in a number of ways:
1. Change in inductance, give a proportional change
in inductive reactance (note that X
L
= 2f L, so X
L

L if f is constant).
2. Change in capacitance, giving an inversely
proportional change in capacitive reactance (note
that X
C
= 1/2f C so X
C
1/C if f is constant).
3. Change in frequency. If L and C are constant, X
L

f and X
C
1/f , so an increase in frequency will
increase inductive reactance and decrease capacitive
reactance.
f
r
=
1
2LC
At some frequency these two values
(inductive and capacitive reactance) would
be equal and series resonance would occur.
154
Variation of current with frequency in a
R-L-C series circuit
Variation of resistance,
reactance and impedance
with frequency in a R-L-C
series circuit
Extremely high voltages
can be formed across the
individual components of
series LC circuits at
resonance, due to high
current flows and
substantial individual
component impedances.
155
Power in single phase circuits
Power is the rate of doing work, or of use up energy.
The electrical unit of power is the watt, which
represents a rate of expending energy of one joule
each second. (W=J/s)
If a resistor of R ohms has a direct voltage of V volts
applied to it, so that a direct current of I amperes
flows, the power dissipated, P watts, will be given by
R
V
R I VxI P
2
2
= = =
for an AC circuit, P is the average power, while V
and I and RMS voltage and RMS current,
respectively. This power is dissipated in the resistor
as heat.
156
Since both voltage and current values are
continuously changing in the AC system, power will
also fluctuate and the rate of dissipating energy is
the instantaneous power, which is given by
vi p =
Power in the resistive AC circuit
For a resistive AC circuit, current and voltage are in
phase, and the power at any instant can be found by
multiplying the voltage and current at that instant.
157
Voltage, current and power waves for resistive
AC circuit
A 3 kW immersion
heater is connected
to a 230 V AC supply.
Calculate the current.
Example 1
) ( 13
230
3000
A
V
P
I = = =
158
Power in the capacitive AC circuit
The current leading the voltage by 90, and the
instantaneous power is: p = vi. In the first quarter-
cycle of voltage, v and i are both positive, so their
product, the power wave is also positive. In the
second quarter-cycle of voltage, v is positive but i is
negative, so the power wave goes negative.
159
During its first and third quarter-cycles, the voltage
is increasing and the supply provides energy to
charge the capacitor. During the second and fourth
quarter-cycles of voltage, the reducing PD across
the capacitor allows it to discharge, returning its
energy to the supply.
The positive pulses represent energy supplied to the
capacitor, while the negative pulses represent
energy supplied by the capacitor as it discharges.
160
The interchange of energy dissipates no average
power in a pure capacitor, so no heating occurs.
Since we have voltage and current, but no average
power, the expression P = VI is no longer true. The
product of voltage and current in this case is called
reactive power and is measured in reactive
voltamperes (VAr). The current to a capacitor which
does not contain resistance does not dissipate
energy, and is called reactive current.
161
A 10 F capacitor is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate the reactive current and reactive
voltamperes.
Example 1
) ( 318
10 50 2
1
2
1
6
W = = =
-
x fC
Xc
p p
) ( 723 . 0
318
230
A
Xc
V
I = = =
) ( 29 . 166 723 . 0 230 VAr x VxI Qc = = =
162
Power in the inductive AC circuit
The current lags the voltage by 90, and the
instantaneous power is: p = vi. In the first quarter-
cycle of voltage, v and i are both positive, so their
product, the power wave is also positive. In the
second quarter-cycle of voltage, v is positive but i is
negative, so the power wave goes negative.
163
During its first and third quarter-cycles, the current
is increasing and the supply provides energy to
magnetic field of the inductor. During the second
and fourth quarter-cycles of voltage, the reducing
current across the inductor allows it to discharge,
returning its energy to the supply.
The positive pulses represent energy supplied to the
inductor, while the negative pulses represent energy
supplied by the inductor as it discharges.
164
Power in resistive and capacitive AC circuits
In a circuit consisting of resistance and capacitive
reactance in series, the voltage and current will
have a relative phase angle between 0 and 90,
depending on the ratio of resistance to reactance
The net
energy drawn
from the supply
will be dissipated
as heat in the
resistive part of
the circuit.
Although, there is still some energy returned to the
supply, (negative pulses), the energy drawn from
the supply (positive pulses), is greater.
165
The ratio of resistance to reactance in the circuit
must have some bearing on the power dissipated,
because power is expended in a resistive circuit, but
not in a reactive circuit.
Example 2
A circuit connected to a 230 V AC supply consists of
a resistance of 28.8 (W) in series with a capacitor of
reactance 38.4(W). Calculate (a) the circuit current,
(b) the circuit phase angle, and (c) the power
dissipated.
W = = = 48 4 . 38 8 . 28
2 2 2 2
Xc R Z
A
Z
V
I 79 . 4
48
230
= = = 6 . 0
48
8 . 28
cos = = = = =
Z
R
IZ
IR
V
VR
f
) ( 661 6 . 0 79 . 4 230 cos W x x VI P = = = f
) ( 661 8 . 28 79 . 4
2 2
W x R I P = = =
166
Example 3
A 10 W resistor and a capacitor are connected in
series to a 120 V, 60 Hz supply. If the power lost in
the circuit is 360 W, calculate the capacitance.
F
x f Xc
C
f C
Xc
R Z Xc
I
V
Z
A
R
P
I
R
P
I
R
P
I R I P
m
p p p
153
3 . 17 60 2
1
2
1
.....
2
1
) ( 3 . 17 10 20
) ( 20
6
120
) ( 6 36
10
360
....... ......
2 2 2 2
2 2
= = = =
W = - = - =
W = = =
= = = =
= = =
167
Power in resistive and inductive AC circuits
When resistance and inductive reactance are in
series, current lags supply voltage by an angle of ,
which will vary from almost 0 to nearly 90.
Energy is both taken
from the supply and
returned to it, that
taken from the supply
exceeding the energy
returned.
The net energy drawn from the supply will be
dissipated as heat in the resistive part of the circuit.
168
Example 4
A 4 W resistor and a pure inductive reactance of 3 W
are connected in series to a 200 V AC supply.
Calculate (a) the current, (b) the circuit phase angle
and (c) the power dissipated.
) ( 6400 4 40
) ( 6400 8 . 0 40 200 cos
9 . 36 .......... 8 . 0
5
4
cos
40
5
200
5 3 4
2 2
0
2 2
2
2
W x R I P
W x x VI P
Z
R
IZ
IR
V
V
A
Z
V
I
X R Z
R
L
= = =
= = =
= = = = = =
= = =
W = = =
f
f f
169
Example 5
A choke connected to a 130 V, 50 Hz supply has a
resistance of 5 W and dissipates 500 W. Calculate its
inductance.
) ( 2 . 38 ) ( 0382 . 0
50 2
12
2
2
12 5 13
13
10
130
) ( 10
5
500
2 2 2 2
2
mH H
f
X
L f L X
R Z X
I
V
Z
A
R
P
I R I P
L
L
L
= = = = =
W = - = - =
W = = =
= = = =
p p
p
170
Power in general
The dissipated power can then be calculated by any
one of the three methods:
R
V
P R I P VI P
R
2
2
.... .......... .... .......... cos = = = f
Where:
P = power dissipated (W);
V = supply voltage (V);
I = circuit current (A);
= circuit phase angle;
R = circuit resistance (W);
VR = PD across the resistive component (V).
171
Concept of power factor and its effect
It is possible for current to flow in a circuit and to
dissipate no power. In most practical cases this will
not happen, but where the phase angle between
current and voltage is large, the in-phase or active
component of current will be smaller than the
reactive component. In AC circuits, the product of
voltage and current need not result in the power
dissipated in watts, this product that gives volt-
amperes, is called apparent power.
Power factor (often abbreviated to PF) is defined as
PF=
active power
apparent power
=
f cos VI
VI
=
f cos
=
R V
=
V
R
Z
172
In a predominantly inductive series circuit, where
current lags voltage, the power factor is called a
lagging power factor. Similarly, in a predominantly
capacitive series circuit, where current leads voltage,
the power factor is called a leading power factor.
The power factor can vary between definite limits,
being 1 (unity) for purely resistive circuits, where the
phase angle is 0 and P = VI; or 0 (zero) for purely
reactive (inductive or capacitive) circuits, where the
phase angle is 90
0
and P = 0.
173
An AC single-phase motor takes 5 A at 0.7 power
factor lagging when connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate the power input to the motor. If the
motor efficiency is 80% calculate the output.


Input power: P = VI cos = 230 5 0.7 = 805 W

Output power = input power efficiency
= 805 0.80 watts = 644 W
Example 1
174
Example 2
Instruments connected to
a single-phase AC motor give
the following readings:
wattmeter, 1800 W,
voltmeter, 230 V,
ammeter, 10 A. Calculate the operating power factor
of the motor.
PF=
active power
apparent power
= =
1800
230x10
0.783 lagging
175
Components of power
Power diagram for
resistive and
inductive AC circuit
Power diagram for
resistive and
capacitive AC circuit
Active power is the in-phase component of apparent
power, thus P = VI cos = apparent power power
factor
Reactive power is the quadrature component of
apparent power, thus Q = VAr = VI sin

Since these three power relationships form the sides
of a right-angled triangle,(VA)
2
= (W)
2
+ (VAr)
2
A single-phase load consists of:
(1) 12 kW of lighting and heating at unity power
factor
(2) 8 kW of motors at 0.8 power factor lagging
(3) 10 kVA of motors at 0.7 power factor lagging.
Calculate:
(a)the total kW,
(b)the total kVAr,
(c)the total kVA,
(d)the overall
power factor and
the total supply
current at 230 V.
176
Example 1
12kW
10kVA
10kVA
j1 j2
8kW 7kW
PF=
kW
kVA
6kVAr
7.14kVAr
9 . 0
30
27
) 14 . 7 6 ( ) 12 8 7 (
12 8 7
2 2
= =


=
I=S/V=
30000/230
=130.43 A
177
Example 2
A single-phase 3.73 kW motor is 85% efficient at full
load and is fed from a 220 V supply. Calculate its
full-load current if it operates at a power factor of
(a) unity, (b) 0.85 lag, and (c) 0.6 lag.
j
j
cos
cos ) (
V
P
I VI W P = =
) ( 24 . 33
85 . 0 6 . 0 220
3730
) ( 47 . 23
85 . 0 85 . 0 220
3730
) ( 95 . 19
85 . 0 1 220
3730
A
x x
I
A
x x
I
A
x x
I
c
b
a
= =
= =
= =
178
All the disadvantages of a low power factor are due
to the fact that a given load takes more current at a
low power factor than it does at a high power factor.
The most important disadvantages of operating a
load at a low power factor are as follows.
(1) Larger cables, switchgear and transformers may be necessary both
within an installation and in the supply mains feeding it.
(2) Low-power-factor working causes operating difficulties on high-
voltage transmission lines.
(3) Because of the effects of items (1) and (2), electricity companies
usually penalise the consumer whose load is at a poor power factor by
charging more for the electrical energy used.
(4) Larger cables may be needed within an installation to carry the
extra current at low power factor. Alternatively, extra load can be
connected to a cable if the power factor of the existing load it carries
is improved.
(5) Higher currents give rise to higher copper losses in cables and
transformers.
(6) Higher currents give larger voltage drop in cables, and a change in
load gives a larger change in voltage drop if the power factor is low.
This is called poor voltage regulation.
179
Double wound and auto-transformers, principle of
operation, application, precautions, advantages and
disadvantages
Transformers are very important in electrical
engineering, because almost all of its many branches
make use of them. The efficient transmission and
distribution of electricity would be impossible without
power transformers. Electronic equipment in
industry uses transformers in very large numbers.
Communications systems, including television and
telephony, rely on transformers for their operation.
Although transformers differ in size and in
application, all rely on the principle of mutual
inductance for their operation.
180
If the two coils are
arranged on a core of
magnetic material, this
will increase the amount
of magnetic flux set up
by one coil and will
make sure that most of
it links with the other
coil. In this way mutual
inductance is increased.
The arrangement is a simple
double-wound transformer.
The winding fed with current
is called the primary winding
and the other the secondary
winding.
181
Each winding must be made with insulated
conductors to prevent short circuits within the
winding itself, or to the magnetic circuit or core,
which is usually earthed for safety on power
transformers.
Alternating current in the primary winding will set up
an alternating magnetic flux in the core, the self-
inductance of the winding inducing in it an EMF
opposing the supply voltage. This EMF will be almost
the same in value as the applied voltage, and for
practical purposes the two may be assumed to be
equal. If all of the changing magnetic flux set up by
the first winding links with the second, the EMF
induced in each turn will be the same regardless of
whether it forms part of the primary winding or of
the secondary winding.
182
Autotransformers
An autotransformer has only one tapped winding,
which is both the primary and secondary of the
machine.
step-down
autotransformer
step-up
autotransformer
183
The major advantage of the autotransformer which
will be smaller, lighter and cheaper than its double-
wound counterpart. The disadvantages of the
autotransformer are as follows:
1 There is a direct metallic connection between the
input and the output, whereas the coupling in a
double-wound transformer is magnetic only, giving
electrical isolation of the two windings.
2 In the event of an open-circuit fault in the common
part of the winding, the input voltage of a step-down
autotransformer would appear on the output
terminals. Because of this danger, the IEE Wiring
Regulations limit the use of autotransformers.
However, they are used in high-voltage transmission
systems, as starters for induction and synchronous
motors, and for voltage control in some types of
discharge lamp.
184
To indicate the danger of input voltage appearing at
output terminals of a step-down autotransformer in
the event of an open circuit in the common winding
185
Construction details. Simple calculations
The single-phase transformer will consist of primary
and secondary windings mounted on a magnetic
core.
186
Core materials
Since it is always be subjected to alternating
magnetisation, the core material and construction
must be chosen to reduce iron losses to a minimum,
or the transformer will not be efficient.
Most transformer cores are made from laminated
silicon steel, the laminations reducing eddy currents
and the silicon steel keeping hysteresis loss to a
minimum. Laminations must be arranged so as to
reduce the air gaps in the magnetic circuit.
The laminations must be tightly held together by
clamping or by taping, or they are likely to vibrate
and produce excessive noise. Some small high-
frequency communications transformers have cores
cast of solid ferroxcube, the eddy-current loss thus
being kept to a reasonable level.
187
packs of laminations being laid up to form
shaped core
188
Core arrangements
A core-type transformer, the
windings being split, with
part of each wound on each
side of the magnetic circuit
to reduce leakage flux.
Leakage is reduced still
further by using the shell-
type arrangement. Both
windings are placed on the
centre limb, the two outer
limbs providing parallel
return paths for the
magnetic flux.
189
Windings
Windings are usually made of copper, although some
experiments using aluminium as a conductor
material have been carried out. Cylindrical or
concentric windings, where the lower-voltage
winding is completely surrounded by the higher-
voltage turns, are used mainly for core-type circuits.
190
Sandwich or disc-type windings, where the two
windings are split into alternately mounted sections,
are used generally on shell-type circuits, except for
very high voltage transformers which use the
cylindrical type of winding.
High voltage
winding
Low voltage
winding
191
A transformer with an output voltage greater than its
input is called a step-up transformer, whereas a step-
down transformer has a lower output voltage than its
input. If a voltage or turns ratio is quoted for a
transformer, this is always put in the order
input : output, which is primary : secondary.
The voltage per turn of the two windings are equal.
primary volts per turn =
primary volts
primary turns
=
V
1
N
1
secondary volts per turn =
secondary volts
secondary turns
=
V
2
N
2
V
1
N
1
V
2
N
2
=
V
1
V
2
N
1
N
2
=
192
Example 1
A transformer with 1000 primary turns and 250
secondary turns is fed from a 230 V AC supply.
Calculate the secondary voltage and the volts per
turn.
V
1
/V
2
=N
1
/N
2
so V
2
= V
1
N
2
/N
1
V
2
= 230 x 250/1000 = 57.5 V
A neon-sign transformer has an output of 4500 V
and is fed at 230 V. If the secondary has 2000
turns, calculate the number of primary turns.
Example 2
V
1
/V
2
=N
1
/N
2
so N
1
= N
2
V
1
/V
2
N
1
= 2000 230/4500 = 102.2 V
193
If we assume that our transformer is 100% efficient,
then power input = power output,
V
1
x I
1
= V
2
x I
2
V
1
/V
2
= I
2
/I
1
Neither of the assumptions made is strictly true
but, since the error involved is small, the resulting
expression is a useful one.
Example 3
A 50 kVA transformer has a voltage ratio of
3300:400 V. Calculate the primary and secondary
currents.
S =V
1
x I
1
so I
1
= S / V
1
= 50000/3300 = 15.2 A

S =V
2
x I
2
so I
2
= S / V
2
= 50000/400 = 125 A

194
Exercise 1
The single-phase transformer feeding a soil-
warming system is supplied at 230 V, 50 Hz, and
must provide a 20 V output. The full-load secondary
current is 180 A, and the secondary has 45 turns.
Calculate
(a) the output kVA of the unit
(b) the number of primary turns
(c) the full load primary current
(d) the volts per turn.
195
A 75 kVA transformer has step-down ratio of 12:1,
2400 primary turns and a primary voltage of 3.3 kV.
Calculate
(a) the number of secondary turns
(b) the secondary voltage
(c) the volts per turn
(d) the full load primary and secondary currents.
Exercise 2
196
Transformer losses, efficiency and regulation
Losses actually occurring can be considered under
two headings: iron (core) losses and copper (I
2
R)
losses.
Iron losses occur in the magnetic core of the
transformer, causing it to heat up. Iron losses can
be divided into
1) hysteresis losses
2) eddy-current losses
Iron losses depend on the frequency of the supply,
and the maximum magnetic flux density in the
transformer core. For power transformers, the
supply frequency is almost always constant, and
since the supply voltage is virtually constant,
there is very little change in the core flux density.
197
Thus it is reasonable to assume that the iron losses
in a transformer remain constant regardless of the
load conditions for example, the iron loss on no
load will be the same as that on full load.
Magnetising current is quite small, so that the
copper loss due to it may be ignored, and the total
copper losses of a power transformer on no load
may be assumed to be zero. Power loss in a
resistive circuit is given by the expression P = I
2
R,
and since winding resistances are largely constant,
copper losses depend on the square of the load
current.
Thus a transformer operating
on half load will have only one
quarter of the copper loss it
has when providing full load.
load
l
o
s
s

198
Efficiency
As well as providing for the output power, the input
to a transformer must supply the transformer losses.
efficiency = (output power/input power) 100%
efficiency =
input power power losses
input power
100%
efficiency = 100%
output power + power losses
output power
199
Example 4
The full-load copper and iron losses for a large
power transformer are 16 kW and 12 kW,
respectively. If the full-load output of the
transformer is 950 kW, calculate the losses and
efficiency of the transformer
(a) on full load
(b) on 60% of full load
(c) on half load.
Total loss = copper loss + iron loss =16 + 12=28kW
efficiency = 100%
output power + power losses
output power
a) efficiency =[950/(950 + 28)] 100% = 97.1%
200
b) At 60% full load, iron loss remains at 12 kW.
Copper loss = (60/100)
2
16 kW = 5.8 kW
Total loss = 5.8 + 12 = 17.8 kW
efficiency =[950x0.6/(950x0.6 + 17.8)]100%=
97.0%
efficiency = 100%
output power x 0.6 + power losses
output power x 0.6
c) At half load, iron loss remains at 12 kW.
Copper loss = (50/100)
2
16 kW = 4.0 kW
Total loss = 4.0 + 12 = 16.0 kW
201
efficiency =[950x0.5/(950x0.5 + 16.0)]100%=
96.7%
efficiency = 100%
output power x 0.5 + power losses
output power x 0.5
202
Regulation
On no load there will be no secondary current
and no voltage drop. On full load the output voltage
will fall, and the difference between no-load voltage
and full-load voltage, expressed as a percentage of
no-load voltage, is called the voltage regulation.
regulation = 100%
no-load voltage
no-load voltage full load voltage
A power transformer provides 400 V on no load
and 390 V on full load. Calculate the voltage
regulation.
Example 5
203
regulation = 100%
no-load voltage
no-load voltage full load voltage
(400390)/400=(10/400)100% = 2.5% regulation=
A transformer with a voltage regulation of 4%
provides 220.8 V on full load.
Calculate its no-load terminal voltage.
Exercise 3
204
Resistance values for conductors at any temperature
other than the standard temperature (usually
specified at 20 deg Celsius) on the specific
resistance table must be determined through yet
another formula:
R
T
= R
ref
[1 + a(T - T
ref
)] (W)
R
T
= conductor resistance at temperature "T"
R
ref
= conductor resistance at reference temperature
a = temperature coefficient of resistance for the
conductor material (1 /
o
C).
T = conductor temperature in degrees Celsius.
T
ref
= reference temperature that a is specified at
for the conductor material. T
ref
, usually 20
o
C, but
sometimes 0
o
C.
205
Material a" per deg C
Nickel Element 0.005866
Iron Element 0.005671
Molybdenum Element 0.004579
Tungsten Element 0.004403
Aluminum Element 0.004308
Copper Element 0.004041
Silver Element 0.003819
Platinum Element 0.003729
Gold Element 0.003715
Zinc Element 0.003847
Steel* Alloy 0.003
Nichrome Alloy 0.00017
Nichrome V Alloy 0.00013
Manganin Alloy +/- 0.000015
Constantan Alloy 0.000074
* Steel alloy at 99.5 % iron, 0.5 % carbon