NDT Training & Certification

Radiography

Part 1.
A Brief Radiation History
1895: Roentgen - X-rays
1896: Becquerel radioactivity
1898: Pierre & Marie Curie
1904: C. Dally died of X-ray exposure
1920s: Radium Dial Painters
1938: Nuclear Fission
1942: the Manhattan Project and Health Physics
1945: Hiroshima & Nagasaki
1946 on: Atmospheric testing & regulation
Principles of Radiography
X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test
object
Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material
through which it is travelling
Thinner areas and materials of a less density show
as darker areas on the radiograph
Thicker areas and materials of a greater density
show as lighter areas on a radiograph
Applicable to metals,non-metals and composites
Penetrating radiation is absorbed as it passes through
matter. The extent to which it is absorbed depends
upon three factors:

The thickness of the absorber.
The physical characteristics of the absorber
(in particular its density and atomic number).
The wavelength or photon energy of the
radiation itself.
X - Rays
Electrically generated
Gamma Rays
Generated by the decay of
unstable atoms
Industrial Radiography
Radiographic Testing
X-Ray Radiography
X-Rays are produced form electrical equipment
referred to as x-ray tubes or x-ray tube heads
X-Ray Radiography
X-Rays are produced form electrical equipment
referred to as x-ray tubes or x-ray tube heads
Gamma Ray Radiography
Gamma rays are produced from artificial isotopes,
example Cobalt 60, Iridium 192.
Gamma Ray Radiography
Gamma rays are produced from artificial isotopes,
example Cobalt 60, Iridium 192.
Source
Radiation beam
Image quality
Indicator (IQI)
Test specimen Radiographic film
Radiographic Testing
Source
Radiation beam
Image quality indicator
Radiographic film with latent image after exposure
Test specimen
Radiographic Testing
Thinner areas and materials of a
less density show as darker
areas on the radiograph

Thicker areas and materials of a
greater density show as lighter
areas on a radiograph
Note that the radiograph cannot
be used to determine the through
thickness position of the voids.
For example, suppose that a chosen
radiographic technique is capable of
detecting a thickness difference of say
0.5 mm in 50 mm of steel.

The gas pore will readily be detected
because A - (B + C) = 3 mm.

The lack of side fusion will not appear
as an image on the radiograph
because
A - (D + E) = 0.01 mm which is much
too small to be detected by the
technique used.
Advantages of Radiography
Permanent record
Internal flaws
Can be used on most materials
Direct image of flaws
Real - time imaging
Disadvantages of Radiography
Health hazard
Sensitive to defect orientation
Access to both sides required
Limited by material thickness
Skilled interpretation required
Relatively slow
High capital outlay and running costs
Electromagnetic Radiation
Waves of energy associated with electrical and
magnetic fields
Electrical and magnetic fields at right angles to
each other and to the direction of propagation
What is radiation?
Electromagnetic Spectrum
10
-10
10
-8
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
1cm 10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
Wavelength
Electric
Waves
TV
Microwaves
Infra red
Ultra
violet
Industrial
radiography
Prefixes Definition Symbol
10
12
Tera T
10
9
Giga G
10
6
Mega M
10
3
Kilo K
10
2
Hecto h
10

Deca da
10
-1
Deci d
10
-2
Centi c
10
-3
Mili m
10
-6
Micro
10
-9
Nano n
10
-12
Pico p
NUMERICAL
Travels at the speed of light
Travels through a vacuum
Travels in a straight line
No electric charge or mass
Intensity proportional to 1/D2 where D
is the distance from the source
Properties of Electromagnetic
Radiation
Shorter Wavelength = Increased Energy
Shortening Wavelength
Natural Background Radiation
Cosmic = about
28 mrem /year
Radon = about
200 mrem /year
Internal Sources =
about 40 mrem /year
Terrestrial = about
28 mrem/year
Man-Made Radiation
Properties of x-ray and gamma rays
They have no effect on the human sense
They have adverse effects on the body
They penetrate matter
They travel at the speed of light
They obey the inverse square law
They may be scattered
They affect photographic emulsion
They may be refracted and diffracted
Radiography
X-ray production
X-Ray Production
A source of electrons.

A target, constructed from a suitable high melting point
material.

A means of accelerating electrons toward the target.
In order to produce x-rays three things are required:
High velocity electrons cannot travel far in air,
therefore the process of acceleration must take place
in a high vacuum.
Electron
accelerated
Fin
(heat dissipated)
Production of X-Ray
Vacuum
Anode
+ve
Cathode
- ve
Target
(tungsten)
Filament
Focusing
cup
X-rays
Berrylium
window
(97-99% heat)
(1-3% X-ray)
X-Ray Tube (Evacuated Glass Bulb)
window
In the form of a beryllium insert or a thinned section of copper
which permits x-rays to exit without unduly increasing inherent
filtration.

Inherent filtration
Term used to describe removal of x-rays from the primary beam
due to absorption by the materials used in x-ray head
construction.
Beryllium
has a very low absorption factor and this minimises inherent
filtration whilst still affording the tube walls protection from stray
electrons.
Nearly all anodes are hooded the hood is a high conductivity
copper shroud which is designed to intercept stray electrons and
to prevent them from hitting the tube walls.

99 % will changed into
heat and light
(Bremsstrahlung)
Continuous X-ray
(Industrial radiography)
Polychromatic ray
Characteristic X-ray
(Monochromatic ray)
Lower velocity electron
Higher velocity electron
Higher velocity electron
Atomic structure of Tungsten ( Anode)
X-ray spectrum
The two characteristic peaks
are caused by target
material inner shell
electrons jumping to a
higher energy level, then
falling back to their
equilibrium state.

Relatively low energy, long
wavelength and are little
used in the industrial
radiography of metallic
components

It can cause a problem
known as diffraction
mottling (artefacts).
Characteristic X- ray
X-Ray Production
1. Electron Source : Tungsten Filament
Current
Heating the filament produces a cloud of loosely
bound, low kinetic energy electrons in close proximity
to the filament.

This process is known as thermionic emission.
X-Ray Production
2. Accelerating Electron : Potential
Difference
-ve

+ve

Focusing cup concentrates
electrons into a beam
X-Ray Production
2. Accelerating Electron : Potential
Difference
-ve
+ve
Tungsten Target
X-rays / Bremsstrahlung
Problems
Electrons travel for only short distances through gasses
Kinetic Energy converted into 97% heat and 3% X-rays
Tungsten has a very high melting point (3370C). This reduces
the chances that it will be vaporised by the large amount of
heat generated.
Sometimes the target is constructed from Tantalum (melting
point 2996C)
Tungsten has a high atomic number
and therefore a large number of
electrons.
X-Ray Production - HEAT
In any X-ray tube around 95% of the energy generated is in the
form of heat
For typical 200kV portable equipment around 1kW of heat has to
be dissipated
For a 300kV constant potential laboratory unit heat generation
is typically 7.5kW
X-ray tubes of all types therefore require a cooling system in
order to prevent overheating and increase duty cycle
Older type sets having glass envelope tubes are generally oil or
gas cooled
X-Ray Production - HEAT
A rotating anode may be used in order to help dissipate heat
- this type of arrangement is generally limited to X-ray units
intended for medical use.
Modern X-ray units have so-called metal-ceramic
envelopes. The use of such envelopes makes it practical to
have a much higher potential difference between the
electrodes and the envelope than was the case with glass.
This in turn permits the use of grounded anodes.
Such anodes are at zero volts and can therefore be cooled
directly by water
X-Ray Production - Anodes
Directional Type
X-Ray Production - Anodes
PANORAMIC
X-Ray Production - Anodes
ROD-ANODE
X-Ray Production - Anodes
ROTATING-ANODE
USED MAINLY FOR LOW
kV, VERY HIGH TUBE
CURRENT, EQUIPMENT
IN MEDICAL
APPLICATIONS
X-Ray Production
Tube current
(mA)


Tube voltage
(kV)
- controls the amount
or intensity of
radiation
- controls the quality
or penetrating ability
of the radiation
X-Ray Production
X-Ray Production
KVs Reduced

Electron Flow Reduces
Wave Length Increases
Reduction In Penetration
Increase In Contrast

KVs Increased

Electron Flow Increases
Wave Length Shortens
Increase In Penetration
Reduction In Contrast

The Effects of Kilo Volts
Conventional x-ray tubes, as used in
industrial radiography, are capable of being
operated in the range from below
50 to 400 kV.

If greater penetrating power is required
high energy x-ray sources such as
betatrons, linear accelerators or Van
der Graaf generators
can be used to provide
x-ray energies of up to
30 or even 40 MeV.
The Conservation of Energy
The law states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed
although it is possible to change it to one form to another.
In the case of x-rays a stream of quickly moving particles (usually
electrons) strike a target material (usually tungsten) and are brought to
a rapid halt. A portion of this energy is give off as packets of
electromagnetic radiation called photons. The photons can vary in
energy which is determined by
1. The original energy of the electrons.
2. How rapid the electrons are decelerated.
3. The atomic number of the target material.
This process is known as bremsstrahlung
X-ray - Bremsstrahlung
NUCLEUS
+
CHARGED
PARTICLE
Beta
g
CHARGED PARTICLE LOSES
ENERGY IN THE FORM OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION AS A RESULT OF
CHANGE IN VELOCITY and
DIRECTION OF TRAVEL.
A.C. Circuit
+
The effect of a.c. on the direction of current flow.
In an x-ray tube x-rays can only be produced
when the current is travelling from the cathode (-
ve) to the anode (+ve).
+
Half Wave rectified Circuit
In the half wave rectified circuit the anode is only
positive every half cycle, therefore the electrons
will only flow from the filament during that time.
The x-rays are only produced during the positive
half cycle.
+
Constant Potential Circuit
The introduction of separate rectifiers into the
circuit, produces a constant electron flow from the
cathode to anode and therefore a relatively
constant output of x-rays. This circuit is know as a
Greinacher circuit.
Advantages
More commonly used on site
More robust
Portable/lighter
Disdavantages
Low output/unit time
Longer exposure times
Low duty cycle 50%
Advantages
High output/unit time
100% duty cycle
Shorter exposure times
Disdavantages
Bulky equipment
Expensive
X-Ray Set Circuits
Constant Potential Half Wave Rectified
Radiography
Gamma ray production
Source assembly in
fully shielded position of
radiographic exposure
device
Source assembly and
remote control cable
connectors

Sealed source in
the exposure
mode
Sealed source in
transit mode
All atoms are composed of the 3 basic particles:
Atomic structure
1. PROTON Has a positive charge & relatively heavy

2. NEUTRON About the same size and weight as the proton
but has NO electrical charge

3. ELECTRON Very light particle, about 1/1840 of the
weight of proton & it has a negative charge
The NUCLEUS contains NEUTRON + PROTON
(packed together in the center
of the atom).
THREE BASIC PARTICLES
Proton
Electron
* In nucleus
* +1 charge
* Number of
protons
determines
the element
* In nucleus
* No charge
* Needed for
stability in
nucleus
* Outside of
nucleus
* -1 charge
Atomic structure
Atomic structure
N SHELL
M SHELL
L SHELL
K SHELL
Proton + ve charge
Neutron no charge
Electron ve charge
Nucleus
Atomic Structure
Atomic Mass Number (A)
The number of protons + neutrons, this can be altered in order
to make artificial isotopes.

A COMPLETE ATOMS must have an equal number of protons &
electrons therefore:

Number of protons = Number of electrons

Atomic Number (Z)
The number of protons only in the nucleus of an atom.
This determines the type of a basic element.
All atoms of particular element have the same atomic number,
THREE BASIC PARTICLES Atomic structure
2
He
4
Atomic Number
No. of electrons
No. of protons
Element/Symbol
Atomic Mass
(AMU)
Atomic structure
ELECTRONS: -Ve Charge
NEUTRONS: No Charge
PROTONS: +Ve Charge
Atomic number (Z) : 2
Atomic mass (A) : 4

The atom carries no overall charge.
Helium Atom
CHARGE OF THE ATOM
The Stable Atom
A Positive Charge
A Negative Charge
Electrons = 2

Protons = 2
Electrons = 1

Protons = 2
Electrons = 3

Protons = 2
Ionization
Definitions:
The removal of electrons from an atom.

The essential characteristic of high energy radiations
when interacting with matter
This effect is the reason why ionizing radiation is
hazardous to health, and provides the means by
which radiation can be detected
8+
Oxygen atom
8 +ve protons
8 -ve electrons
no overall charge
Protons &
Neutrons
Electrons
8 +ve protons
7 -ve electrons
1 +ve charge
Ionising Radiation
8+
Ejected electron
8+ 8 +ve protons
9 -ve electrons
1 -ve charge
Negative oxygen ion
Positive oxygen ion
Ionization
IONIZING VS NON-IONIZING RADIATION
Non-Ionizing
Radiation
Ionizing Radiation
Ion Pair
NON-IONIZING RADIATION
Types of non-ionizing radiation
include:

Microwaves
Radio waves
Visible light
Heat
Infrared
Radioactive Isotopes
Some isotopes are stable others are not
Unstable isotopes transform into another element
and in so doing emit radiation in 3 forms
Alpha (particles)
Beta (particles)
Gamma (rays)
Isotopes Specific Activity
ALPHA PARTICLES
2 NEUTRONS AND 2 PROTONS
VERY LOW PENETRATING
GAMMA RAYS
EMMITTED AFTER
BETA OR ALPHA
PARTICLES.
Photons of energy they
are not particles.
BETA PARTICLES
EJECTED AS ELECTRONS
-Ve CHARGE
ISOTOPE
RADIOACTIVE AREAS
THE GREATER THE
AMOUNT THE GREATER
THE SPECIFIC ACTIVITY
NEUTRONS
THERMAL & FAST
ISOTOPES
Protium H or H-1
Protium H or H-1
1
1
1
1
Deuterium H or H-2
Deuterium H or H-2
1
1
2
2
Tritium H or H-3
Tritium H or H-3
1
1
3
3
Proton
Proton
Electron
Electron
Neutron
Neutron
Rate of Decay
Curie = 3.7 x 10
10
disintegration / second
Becquerel = 1 disintegration / second
1 Curie = 37 Gbq
The amount of gamma radiation the number of photons,
produced by an isotope is controlled by the number of
disintegrations (atomic fissions) per unit time.

The source strength of an isotope is usually expressed in
curies (Ci) or becquerels (Bq).
Source strength may also be referred to as source activity.
HALF-LIFE
After One
Half Life
The activity is
now half of what
it was
Half Life = Time taken for the activity of
an isotope to reduce by a half
Neutron Flux
Stable cobalt - 59
Unstable cobalt - 60
Nuclear Reactor
Inserted
Removed
Each Co 59 Nucleus
contains :27 protons
32 neutrons
Each Co 60 Nucleus
contains :27 protons
33 neutrons
Production Of Artificial Isotopes
Only a relatively few Co 59 atoms become Co 60 depending on the
time in the reactor and the magnitude of the neutron flux

Isotope Half-Life
Principle
Emissions
(MeV)
Equivalent
x-ray
Kilovoltage
(kV)
Penetrating
Power in mm
Of Steel
Iridium (Ir) 192 74.4 days
0.31,0.47,
0.60
400 75
Cobalt (Co) 60 5.3 years 1.17,1.33 1200 200
Thulium (Tm)
170
127 days 0.052,0.084 80 4
Ytterbium (Yb)
169
32 days 0.17,0.20 145 10
Selenium (Se) 75 118.5 days
0.121, 0.136,
0.265, 0.28, 0.401
217
(low energy beam
components
improve sensitivity)
30
Gamma line spectrum (discrete energies), the wave
length is not of a fixed nature. A number of frequencies
will be emitted for most sources.
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

M
e
v
.

Long Short
Co 60
1.17 to1.3 Mev
Ir 192
0.3 to 0.47 Mev
Yb 169
0.06 to 0.2 Mev
Wavelength l
Wavelengths
Rayleigh scattering
Occurs at very low energies
In this process, photons are
deflected by outer electrons
with no change in energy

Photoelectric effect
Occurs at low energies
The complete absorption of a photon
of energy by an atom with the
emission of an electron
ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING
Compton effect
Occurs at higher energies
The interaction of a photon of
energy by an electron resulting in
the ejection of an electron from its
atom with a certain amount of
energy. The remaining energy is
scattered this is known as
COMPTON SCATTER
Pair production
Occurs at very high energies
The simultaneous formation of an
positron (+ve electron) and a electron
as a result of the interaction of a
photon with the nucleus of the atom.
The particles are soon afterwards
destroyed thus creating photons this
is known as Annihilation
1. Rayleigh Scattering
Soft radiation

The primary photon is scattered by the orbital electrons without
removing any electrons . The photon is deflected but does not
change the energy
Scattering process
Absorption process
1. Photoelectric Process
Low Energy X-ray
Ejected electron
(total energy beam
absorbed by this
electron)
Low energy level - Below 0.3 Mev

Moderate Energy ( 0.3 - 3.0 Mev)
Most commonly happen in radiography industry
using Ir 192
Absorption process
1. Compton Effect
Energy level-(0.3 - 3.0 Mev)
Ejected electron
Scattered
radiation
photon
X-ray
Absorption process
3. Pair Production
Energy level (Above 3.0 Mev)
Thick material using Co 60

Ejected electron
High Energy X-
ray
Ejected
positron
Scattered
radiation
Measuring Radiation
WAVELENGTH: New: Nanometers (nm) 1nm = 10
-9

Old: Angstroms () 1 = 10
-10
m

RADIATION EXPOSURE: New: Coulomb/kilogram (C/kg)
Old: Roentgen

ABSORBED DOSE: New: Gray (Gy)
1 Gy = 1 joule/kilogram
Old: Rad 100 rads = 1 Gy

BIOLOGICAL EFFECT: New: Sievert (Sv)
1 Sv = 1 joule/kilogram
Old: Rem 100 rems = 1 Sv
Gamma ray VS X-ray
No electrical or water supplies
needed

Equipment smaller and lighter
(More portable)

Equipment simpler and more robust

More easily accessed

Less scatter

Equipment initially less costly

Greater penetrating power
Advantages
Poorer quality radiographs

Exposure times can be longer

Sources need replacing

Radiation cannot be switched off

Poorer geometric unsharpness

Remote handling necessary
Disadvantages
SPECIFIC ACTIVITY
Units measured - curies per gram (Ci/g)
source activity
weight of the source.
specific activity =
Formulae:






Inverse Square Law
D
2
D
1

I
1
I
2
D
1
2
D
2
2
=

I
2
I
1
Inverse Square Law Calculations
Example: 1 An x-ray tube emits 40 msv/h of radiation at
an auto-monitored distance of 1m. What is
the distance where safety barriers are to be
erected at 7.5 sv/h?
I1 =
I2 =
D1 =
D2 =
Answer D2 = 73 m
X D1
2

I2
I1
D2
=
X 1
2
7.5
40000 =
D2
40 msv/h (X 1000)
7.5 sv/h
1m
?
D
1
2
D
2
2
=

I
2
I
1
Formulae:

Example: 2 An emergency is when an unshielded isotope
emits 6.4 sv/h at the barriers at 45m
distance. What will be the exposure at 1m?

Answer I2 = 12960sv/h
X I1
D2
2

D1
2

2 I =
X 6.4
1
2

45
2

I2 =
6.4 sv/h
?
45m
1m
D
1
2
D
2
2
=

I
2
I
1
Formulae:

I1 =
I2 =
D1 =
D2 =
Determine the intensity of radiation at a distance of 1m if a
survey meter reveals 0.02 mr/h at 35m.

Answer I1 = 24.5 mr/h
X I2
D1
2

D2
2

1 I =
X 0.02
1
2

35
2

I1 =
?
0.02 mr/h
1m
35m
D
1
2
D
2
2
=

I
2
I
1
Formulae:

I1 =
I2 =
D1 =
D2 =
Example: 4 The intensity of radiation on a survey meter
is 333sv/h at 15m. What distance is
between the meter and radiation source if
the meter shows 75 msv/h?
Answer D2 = 0.999 m
X D1
2

I2
I1
D2
=
X 15
75000
333 =
D2
333 sv/h
75 msv/h (X 1000)
15m
?
D
1
2
D
2
2
=

I
2
I
1
Formulae:

I1 =
I2 =
D1 =
D2 =