EEE 231: Electronics I 1

Semiconductor Diode
Instructor: Mahmuda Akter Monne
Senior Lecturer, EEE
Eastern University
Mahmuda A Monne
EEE 231: Electronics I 2
Physical Operation of Diodes

Lecture 1
Mahmuda A Monne
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 3
Outline
Basic Semiconductor Concepts
Classification of Silicon
Intrinsic Silicon
Current flowing mechanism in Crystals:
diffusion & drift


Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 4
Basic Semiconductor Concepts
p-n junction:



Semiconductor diode is basically a p-n
junction.
p-n junction consists of p-type semiconductor
material (such as Si) & n-type semiconductor
material (such as Si).
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 5
Classification of Silicon
Silicon
Intrinsic Si
(pure Si)
Extrinsic Si
p-type (B, Al, etc)
n-type (P, N, etc)
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 6
Diffusion mechanism
Diffusion mechanism occur for applying an magnetic field in an
semiconductor.
J
P
= -q D
P
dP/dx
( hole diffusion)
Where J
P
= hole current density ( i.e. current per unit area of the plane
perpendicular to x axis) in A/cm
2

q = magnitude of electron charge = 1.610
-19
C
D
P
= Diffusion constant or diffusivity of holes
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Diffusion mechanism-cont
For current diffusion
J
n
= q D
n
dn/dx
(electron current
diffusion)
Where J
n
= electron current density ( i.e. current per unit area of the plane
perpendicular to x axis) in A/cm
2

q = magnitude of electron charge = 1.610
-19
C
D
n
= Diffusion constant or diffusivity of electrons

For holes and electrons diffusing in intrinsic Si, typical values for diffusion
constants

D
p
= 12 cm
2
/s and D
n
= 34 cm
2
/s
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 8
Drift
Assume that an electric field is applied across a piece
of silicon.
Free electrons and holes are accelerated by the
electric field and acquire a velocity component called
drift velocity.
If the field strength is denoted E (in V/cm), the
positively charged holes will drift in the direction of
E and acquire a velocity given by:
Where is the mobility of a hole.
drift p
p
v E

Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 9

Mobility
Mobility
2
2
Where is the mobility of a hole.
The same is true for electrons going the other way
Where is the mobility of an electron
typical values:
480 V/cm
1350 V/cm
Note that 2.5
drift p
p
drift n
n
p
n
n
v E
v E

p

Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 10
Drift Current Density
Drift Current Density

As the electrons and holes are going in opposite directions
p drift p
n drift n
drift p n
J qp E
J qn E
J q p n E

Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 11
Question: Consider a Si crystal having a hole density P and a
free electron density n. An electric field E is applied to the
crystal. Find the expression of resistivity for that material.
Solution:
Electric field = E
Hole density = p
Electron density = n
Holes will drift in same direction as E and drift velocity for holes =
P
E
Thus, for positive charge density ( qP C/cm
3
) moving in x direction with
velocity (
P
E), the amount of charge flow across a plane A
perpendicular to x-axis is I
P
= qP
P
EA ( current flows for holes)
so, J
P-drift
= I
P
/A = qP
P
E ---------- (1)

Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 12
For electrons, negative charge density ( -qn) moving
in x direction with drift velocity (-
n
E), so I
n
=
qn
n
EA
and J
n-drift
= qn
n
E --------------- (2)
So, total drift current density, J
drift
= J
p-drift
+ J
n-drift

= q(p
p
+ n
n
)E
Using Ohms law, E = IR = I(l/A)
For unit length (l=1cm), E = I /A = J
drift

so, =E/J
drift

= 1 /q(p
p
+ n
n
)
= 1 /q(p
p
+ n
n
)
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Einstein Relationship
Relation between carrier diffusivity and mobility is
known as Einstein relationship. The relation is as
follow

T
D
D
V
p
p
n
n


Where V
T
= thermal voltage = 25 mV at room
temperature for intrinsic Si
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 14
Lecture 2

Doping of Semiconductors: p-type & n-type
Ideal Diode & its characteristics
Practical Diode & its characteristics

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Doping Semiconductors
Doped Semiconductors
By adding an impurity, one kind of carrier
predominates
Doped silicon where the majority of charge
carriers are the negatively charged electrons is
called n-type
Doped silicon where the majority of charge
carriers are the positively charged holes is called p-
type
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 16
N-type
Doped with a pentavalent
element such as phosphorus.
Five valence electrons
four form covalent bonds
one becomes a free
electron
This is called a donor.
No holes are created by this
doping, thus there are free
electrons without associated
holes
Electrons majority charge
carrier (concentration
independent of T)
Holes minority charge carrier

Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 17
P-type
Doped with a trivalent element
such as boron.
Three valence electrons
three form covalent bonds
other bond has a hole.
This is called an acceptor.
No electrons are freed by this
doping, thus there are holes
without associated free electrons.
Holes majority charge carrier
(concentration independent of T)
Electrons minority charge
carrier

Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 18
Ideal Diode
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 19
Current-Voltage Characteristic of
an Ideal diode
Forward/Reverse Bias
OFF mode
ON mode
i-v characteristic curve of an
ideal diode
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 20
Ideal diode
Positive terminal of diode is called anode and negative
terminal is called cathode.
OFF mode: if a negative voltage is applied to diode, no
current flows and the diode behaves as Open Circuit.
(v<0 and i=0). This mode is called Reverse-biased mode
of operation and is said to be Cut Off.
V
anode
<V
cathode
=> Reverse bias
ON mode: If a positive voltage is applied to diode, zero
voltage drop appears across the diode and the diode
behaves as Short circuit. (i>0 and v=0). This mode is
called Forward and a forward-conducting diode is said to
be Turned on or simply on.
V
anode
> V
cathode
=> Forward bias

Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 21
Problem 1
What is the current through the diode and
the voltage across the diode for the
following two circuits?
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 22
Problem 2
What is the output voltage for the following
circuit? (a Rectifier)
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Problem 3
Find I and V in the following circuits.
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Find the values of I and V in the following circuits.
5/ 2.5 2
0
I k mA
V V

0
5
I mA
V V

0
5
I mA
V V

2
0
I mA
V V

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Practical Diode
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 26
Areas of Operation
There are 3 areas of
operation
The forward-bias region
v > 0
The reverse-bias region
v < 0
The breakdown region
v < -V
zk
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 27
Areas Expanded: I-V characteristic
curve for practical diode
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 28
Forward-Bias Region
I is the forward-bias current
Occurs when v on the diode is positive.
the cut-in voltage is the voltage beneath which
the current is negligible small (generally around
0.5V)
The current exponentially increases, and the
voltage drop typically lies in a narrow range from
.6V to .8V


/
1
T
v nV
s
i I e
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Saturation Current
The saturation current is directly proportional to
the cross-sectional area of the diode.
For small-signal diodes, the saturation current
is on the order of 10e-15A.
Strongly correlated to temperature
doubles for every 5C rise in temperature.

/
saturation curre
1
is nt, t scale current he or
T
v nV
s
s
i I e
I

Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 30
Thermal Voltage

/
thermal vol
1
is the and is given by
where
tage
T
v nV
s
T
T
i I e
V
kT
V
q

-23
-19
Boltzmann's constant = 1.38x10 joules/kelvin
Absolute temperature in kelvins = 273+
the magnitude of electronic charge = 1.60x10 coulomb
k
T C
q

at room temperature (20 C), the value of is 25.2mV

We generally use 25mV
T
T
V
V
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 31
Fudge Factor

/
1
T
v nV
s
i I e
n is a constant between 1 and 2 that
represents variances in the material and
physical structure of the diode.
Diodes made using standard integrated
circuit techniques exhibit an n close to 1.
Diodes available as two-terminal devices
generally exhibit an n closer to 2.
We will use n=1 unless specified.
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 32
Voltage as a function of Current
This exponential
relationship for v holds
over many decades of
current (as many as
seven decades).

/
/
1
for
ln
T
T
v nV
s
s
v nV
s
T
S
i I e
i I
i I e
i
v nV
I

Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 33
Current effect on voltage

1
2
2 1
/
1
/
2
/
2
1
2 2
2 1
1 1
ln 2.3 log
T
T
T
V nV
s
V nV
s
V V nV
T T
i I e
i I e
I
e
I
I I
V V nV nV
I I

Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 34
Problem 1
Consider a silicon diode with n=1.5. Find
the change in voltage if the current
changes from 0.1mA to 10mA.

2 2
2 1
1 1
ln 2.3 log
10
2.3 1.5 log 172.5
1
T T
diff T
I I
V V nV nV
I I
ma
V V mV
ma


Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 35
Problem 2
A silicon junction diode with n=1 has
v=0.7V at i=1mA. Find the voltage drop at
i=.1mA and i=10mA.


2 2
2 1
1 1
2
2
ln 2.3 log
.1
2.3 1 log .58 , .64
1
10
2.3 1 log .58 , .76
1
T T
diff T
diff T
I I
V V nV nV
I I
ma
V V mV V V
ma
ma
V V mV V V
ma



Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 36
Reverse-Bias Region
In the reverse-bias region, the current is
theoretically

Real diodes often exhibit a much larger
current due to leakages. However, the
current is still quite small (nA range).
There is also a slight increase with voltage
for reverse-bias current.
s
i I
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 37
Breakdown Region
When the voltage reaches a certain
negative potential, the diode will begin
conducting current. This knee is known
as the breakdown voltage, V
zk
.
The Z stands for Zener and the K for knee.
diodes that make use of the breakdown
voltage and its near constant
voltage/current relationship to be used in
voltage regulation.
Mahmuda A Monne EEE 231: Electronics I 38
Thank You