Russian Federation

I. Authoritarian Oligarchy or
Budding Democracy
Between 1945-1991 global politics defined by
competition between the USA and USSR
Collapse of Soviet Union in 1991 left the Russian
Federation as the largest piece of territory
remaining from the USSR, its population was cut
in half, but it still remained the largest country in
the world in terms of geographic size
Boris Yeltsin became 1
st
president of the Russian
Federation, he initiated Shock Therapy reforms
Democracy
Free Market Economy
Oligarchy vs. Democracy
Continued
Oligarchy a small group of Yeltsins family
members and personal advisors took control of
government and granted themselves favors
inviting political and economic corruption
Vladimir Putin replaced Yeltsin in 1999 and has
attempted to contain the oligarchies influence in
some aspects of government
Centralization of Power in President
Movement towards authoritarian rule
Unpredictability of Russia (No experience with
democracy and free market economy)
Slavic roots provide strong tendency to autocratic rule
II. Sovereignty, Authority, and
Power
Most of 20
th
century authority in Soviet Russia
came from the Politburo of the Communist Party
Politburo small group of men who climbed the
ranks of the party through the nomenklatura
system (patron-client system).
Nomenklatura ordered path from local party soviets
to the commanding heights of leadership
Patron-client networks---an informal system of policymaking in which a
powerful patron offers resources in return for support of lesser clients
When the Soviet Union dissolved the authority
and power of the Politburo dissolved with it.
III. Legitimacy
Political legitimacy for Russia is currently very low, partly
because changes are a drastic departure from the past
Recent evidence that country began to stabilize under Putin.
Putin has used authoritarian strategies to solidify Russias
weak, illiberal democracy.
Historically Russias political legitimacy has been based on
strong, centralized, autocratic rule
Tsars
Communist rule propagated by Marxism-Leninism
Democratic-Centralism: rule by a few for the benefit of
the many
Stalinism changed the regime to totalitarianism
Constitution of 1993 provided for a strong president,
although power of the president can technically be checked
by popular elections and the Duma
IV. Historical Influences on
Politics
Absolute, Centralized Rule
Extensive Cultural Heterogeneity
ethnic diversity and numerous republics and
autonomous regions reflected in name
Russian Federation
Slavophile vs. Westernizer
Revolutions of 20
th
Century
V. Political Culture
Characteristics
Geographic Setting
Eastern Orthodoxy
Equality of Result
Hostile toward Government
Importance of Nationality

Geographic Setting
Geographic Setting
Largest country in world
Contains 11 time zones
Majority of country is north of 49
th
degree latitude
(U.S. Canada border), which means it is mostly
frozen
Abundance of Natural Resources that exist in
inhospitable or inaccessible geographic locations
Eastern Orthodoxy
Eastern Orthodoxy
Early in their history Russians established ties with
Constantinople and adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity as
their religion
This meant that they did not share the values of the
Renaissance, Reformation, Scientific Revolution and
Enlightenment
Russians came to value a strong state to protect them from
geographic vulnerabilities instead of individualism
Russian statism existed in contrast to Western civil society
Eastern Orthodoxy also linked with the state, separation of
church and state therefore did not exist in Russia
Russia developed a sense of global mission linked to there self-
proclaimed title as the Bastions of Eastern Christianity. This
sense of global mission would be promoted by the Soviet Union
in their spread and preservation of communism (the Third
International)
Equality of Result
Equality of Result
Communist regime instilled a value of equality in the
Russian people already strong in a country of peasants
with similar living standards
Egalitarianism has survived the fall of the Soviet Union
Most Russians resent differences of wealth or income
Equality of Result vs. Equality of Opportunity
Russian political culture is not particularly conducive
to the development of capitalism
VI. Political & Economic
Change
1. Long period of Autocratic rule by Tsars ruled Russia
from the 14
th
century to the early 20
th
. Control of Russia passed
down through the Romanov family from the 17
th
century on, but
transitions were often accompanied by brutality and
assassinations
2. 20
th
century rule by Communist Party began in 1917
when Lenins Bolsheviks seized control of the government after
the last tsar, Nicholas II, was deposed. The regime toppled in 1991
when a failed coup from within the government created chaos
3. Regime change to Democracy and Free Markets in
1991 President Boris Yeltsin put western-style reforms in place
to help create the Russian Federation
Early Tsarist Rule
First tsars were princes of Moscow who
cooperated with Mongol rulers in the 13
th

century
After Mongol empire weakened the princes
named themselves tsars in the tradition of the
Caesars of ancient Rome
Autocratic from the beginning to protect
themselves against invasion and attack
Tsars served as official head of Eastern Orthodox
Church, they were seen as political and religious
leaders
Western Tsars
Peter the Great
Ruled in late 17
th
and early 18
th
century
Introduced western technology and culture to Russia
First tsar to travel to Germany, Holland, & England
Brought engineers, carpenters, and architects to Russia
Set Russia on course to becoming a world power
Catherine the Great
Originally from Germany
Ruled during the late 18
th
century
Russia gained warm water access to the Black Sea under her
reign
Enlightened Despot interested and read Enlightenment
ideas, she ruled absolutely but with the good of the people in
mind
Tsars after Peter and Catherine alternated between
emphasizing Slavic roots and tolerating western reforms
19
th
Century
Russia invaded by Napoleon in 1812
Alexander I resists invasion and ultimately drives French out of Russia
Russian intellectuals influenced by Western thought grew weary of
tsarist absolutism and revolted: Decembrist Revolt of 1825
Revolt crushed by Nicholas I
Crimean War Russia defeated by UK, France, and Ottoman Empire.
Defeat was a significant blow for confidence in tsarist leadership
among Russians
Tsars used secret police for investigations, as well as exiling and
execution of dissenters in 19
th
century
Alexander II only 19
th
century tsar to embrace reforms, however he
was assassinated in 1881.
He freed Russian serfs
Set up regional zemstvas (assemblies)
Alexander III reacted to assassination by undoing reforms and
intensifying efforts of secret police.

Revolution of 1917
Causes
Russias defeat in Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)
Ineffectiveness in World War I
Riots first break out in 1905 after Russians
defeated by Japanese
Revolts were suppressed but state collapsed in
1917 amidst World War I
Russian soldiers were fighting without guns and
shoes, military defections from the war helped
send the state into chaos

Lenin and the Bolsheviks
Mensheviks Russian Marxists who believed that
socialist revolutions would first take place in
industrialized countries such as Germany and England,
Russians would have to wait to modernize

Vladimir Lenin communist who disagreed with
Mensheviks, he argued for democratic-centralism, or a
vanguard leadership group to lead the revolution in the
name of the people

Bolsheviks followers of Lenin, practice Marxism-
Leninism, took control of Russian government in late
1917 (October Revolution).
Lenin & Bolsheviks continued
Brest-Litovsk Treaty negotiated between Bolsheviks and
Germans to end Russian involvement in WWI. Russians ceded
a third of their arable land to the Germans under the Treaty

In 1918 civil war broke out in Russia between the White Army,
led by Russian military leaders and backed by the Allies, and
the Red Army led by Lenin and the Bolsheviks. Red Army
victorious.

New Economic Policy (NEP) instituted by Lenin in 1920
following civil war, allowed for a great deal of private
ownership to exist under a centralized leadership

Lenin dies in 1924, after brief struggle for power amongst
Bolsheviks he is succeeded by Josef Stalin, Man of Steel

Command and Market Economies
Factories, Farms and shops
are controlled by the state
Production decisions made
by the state
State decides what to sell
Prices for basic goods are
subsidized by the state and
kept low
Unemployment is considered
unacceptable
Factories, Farms and shops
privately owned
Most production decisions
are made by individuals
People are responsible for
finding their jobs
Producers sell what they
think people will buy
Prices are set by producers,
what the market will bear
Some unemployment is
considered acceptable
Stalinism
Stalin places Communist
Party (CPSU) at center of
control
Leaders identified through
nomenklatura process of
selecting individuals from lower
levels within party (Kept a file for
anybody who was somebody)
Central Committee: group of 300
party leaders who were the top
government officials
Politburo: heart and soul of
Communist Party, group of 12 men
from the Central Committee who
ran the country, all government
agencies and departments were at
their disposal and carried out their
decisions
General Secretary: head of the
Politburo, dictator of the country
(Stalin was General Secretary from
19271953)
General Secretary
Politburo
Central Committee
Party Congress
Party Structure under Communism
Regional and Local party structure (cells)
Stalinism II
Collectivization & Industrialization
Replaced the NEP with collective farms
Private land ownership abolished, kulaks forced to move to cities
or labor camps
Five-Year Plans: ambitious goals for production of heavy
industry such as oil, steel, and electricity. Labor and factories
fueled by agricultural surplus produced from the farms
Gosplan: Central State Planning Commission, in charge of Five-
Year Plans, became the center for the economy, determined
production and distribution of virtually all goods in Soviet Union
Stalinism the two-pronged program of collectivization
and industrialization, carried out by central planning,
executed with force and brutality

Stalins Foreign Policy
Primary concern internal development, foreign policy
was meant to support this
Stalin advocated socialism in one country
Signed Non-Aggression Pact with Nazi Germany in 1939
After Nazis invade Soviet Union in 1940, Stalin joins the
Allies to fight Germans in World War II
Red Army drives Nazis out of Soviet Union and back to
Berlin where the Germans are defeated in 1945.
Red Army occupies majority of Eastern Europe during
this time period
Tensions between Soviets and the West, particularly the
United States, become a growing foreign policy concern
for Stalin
Cold War
The Purges
Execution of millions of Soviet citizens
As many as one million communist party
members executed
Stalin obsessed with disloyalty within the
party
Generals, Central Committee members, and
Politburo officials purged as a result of
Stalins paranoia
Khrushchev
Follows Stalin as General Secretary
after brief power struggle in CPSU
1956, gives secret speech (based
on letter written by Lenin)
denouncing Stalinism, initiates
reforms that lead to
DeStalinization process in Soviet
Union
Diplomatic and military failure of the
Cuban Missile Crisis leads to his
downfall and removal as General
Secretary
Khrushchevs Reforms
Loosen government censorship of press
Decentralization of economic decision-
making
Restructuring of collective farms
Peaceful Coexistence foreign policy in Cold
War diplomacy with U.S. (Cuban Missile Crisis
threatens this initiative)
Brezhnev
Eventually succeeds Khrushchev
as General Secretary of CPSU
and head of state of the Soviet
Union
Hard-line, conservative member
of Communist party
Ends reforms initiated by
Khrushchev
Dtente is dominant foreign
policy in Cold War diplomacy
with U.S., this ends with the
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
ordered by Brezhnev in 1979
Gorbachev
Takes over as General Secretary in the mid-1980s
Leads a younger generation of communists
Educated and more westernized then previous
Soviet leaders
Initiates a wave of reforms that included:
Glasnost
Perestroika
Demokratizatsiia
Glasnost Openness
Open discussion of political, social, and
economic issues
Allowed for open criticism of government and
government policies
Gorbachev stressed that the ultimate test of the
party lay in improving the economic well-being
of the country and its people
Open market relations
Pragmatic economic policy
Less secretive government
Perestroika
Restructuring
Loosened controls of the Communist Party,
allowing group formation in other sectors of
society
Economic Restructuring
Modernization from within
Transfer economic power from central government to
private hands and market economy
Authorization of privately owned companies
Penalties for under-performing state factories
Price reforms
Encouragement of joint ventures with foreign companies
Leasing of farm land outside the collective farms
Demokratizatsiia
Gorbachev wanted to insert some democratic
characteristics into the old Soviet structure
However, he did want to maintain Communist
Party control
Reforms included:
1. A new Congress of Peoples Deputies with directly
elected representatives
2. New position of President that was selected by the
Congress
Deputies were often critical of Gorbachev
Increasing levels of displeasure with government from both
liberal and conservative members of Communist Party
Boris Yeltsin
Former member of Politburo, removed because his radical
views offended conservatives
Even more extreme than Gorbachev
Elected president of Russian Republic as result of voting
procedures put in place by Gorbachev
Emerged as president of the largest republic, Russian
Federation, after Soviet Union dissolves
Attempts to create a western-style democracy
Shock Therapy economic reforms (Immediate market
economy)
Russian economy does not respond to shock therapy reforms
Conflict erupts between Yeltsin and the Duma
Shock Therapy
Even well established market economies need
strong state institutions (ironic)
Russia lacked
1. effective tax collection: the government cant acquire
revenues needed to pay its own bills and provide services
2. regulatory functions: no rules regarding how the banks
operated or labor standards
Also, no federal system of government
Increased power of oligarchs (Russian capitalists) who
held a tremendous amount of power and wealth
Rise of mafia
Yeltsin II
Poor president
Hires and fires numerous
prime ministers
Alcoholic & frequently ill; this
leads to erratic political
behavior
Resigns before the 2000
elections
Vladimir Putin, Yeltsins
prime minister, takes over
and wins the 2000 & 2004
elections


VII. Citizens, Society, and the
State
Nationality
Most important single cleavage in Russia
80% of population is Russian
Others include:
Tatars
Ukrainians
Armenians
Chuvashes
Bashkis
Belorussians
Moldavians
Nationality continued
Nationality cleavages determine the
organization of the country into federations,
autonomous regions, republics, and provinces
Many ethnic groups would like to have their
independence, but are enticed by trade benefits
with the Russian government to stay in the
Federation
Chechnya is the one exception

Chechnya
Primarily Muslim region of Russia
Contains some valuable resources, such as oil
fields
Independence movement is strong, and Russian
government has struggled to keep Chechnya
region within its control
Chechens have reverted to terrorist tactics
including taking over a heavily attended Russian
theater and in 2004 the seizure of a school that
resulted in the deaths of over 350 people, mostly
children
VII. Citizens, Society, and the
State continued
Religion
Russian Orthodox under the tsars
All religion prohibited during the Soviet Unions
rule
Boris Yeltsin encouraged Russian Orthodox
Church to reestablish itself to signal a break from
communism and a reflection of old Russian
nationalism
Other religions represented in very small
percentages (Roman Catholic, Jews, Muslims,
Protestants)


VII. Citizens, Society, and the
State continued
Social Class
Russian society much more egalitarian than western
societies with a few notable exceptions
Nomenklatura: only about 7% of the citizenry were CPSU members,
and all political leaders were chosen from this group. However within
this group egalitarian measures were followed, and little significance
was given to economic and social background
Business Oligarchy: emerged during Yeltsins regime, often former KGB
and CPSU leaders, granted favors by Yeltsin government to promote
business. Struggled in late 1990s but have emerged as leaders in Russia
after acquiring major corporations, ie. Media Most & Yukos Oil. Putin had
to arrest or send into exile CEOs of these companies for refusing to pay
or underpaying government taxes

Rural vs. Urban Life
73% of all Russians live in urban settings, usually in the
western part of the country

Economic divide between rural and urban residents is
wide, however, all Russians have been hit hard by recent
economic woes of the post-Cold War Russia

Urban residents tend to be more educated and in touch
with western culture
Beliefs and Attitudes
Mistrust of Government result of treatment and
government secrecy during tsarist and Soviet regimes
Statism despite mistrust of government, Russian citizens still
expect the state to take active role in their lives
Economic Beliefs nearly all groups and political factions favor
market reforms, although not all do so enthusiastically
Westernization - Slavophile vs. Westernizer some political
parties emphasize nationalism, Russian interests, and Slavic culture;
others emphasize reform, and integration of Russia into world
economy and global trade
Political Participation
During Soviet rule political participation was forced, and therefore
was close to 100%
Gorbachevs reforms created competitive elections in the Soviet
Union that followed through to the Russian Federation
In 1991 voter turnout in the Russian Federation was higher than the
U.S.
Political participation for the Duma elections of 1993 was only 50.3%,
but this followed a failed attempt by the Duma to take over the
country
Presidential voter turnout has declined from 75% in 1991 elections to
less than 65% for the 2004 elections
Lack of participation may be due to Russias underdeveloped civil
society
Only 1% of Russias citizens report being a member of a political
party
Few Russians are members of clubs, churches, or cultural groups