Seismic Inversion and AVO applied

to Lithologic Prediction

Part 1 - Rock Physics and
Fluid Replacement Modeling
1-2
Introduction to rock physics
Rock physics is a very large subject, and we
will only touch its surface today.
We will concentrate on the effect of fluids on
the density, P-wave velocity and S-wave
velocity of rocks.
After an overview of velocities in non-porous
rocks, we will take a brief look at Biot-
Gassmann theory.
Those interested in a more comprehensive
overview should purchase the book The
Rock Physics Handbook by Gary Mavko.
1-3
Basic Rock Physics
The AVO response is dependent on the behaviour of P-
wave velocity (V
P
), S-wave velocity (V
S
), and density () in
a porous reservoir rock. As shown below, this involves the
matrix material, the pores, and the fluids filling the pores:
Rock Matrix Pores / Fluid
1-4
Density
Density effects can be modeled fairly simply with the
following equation:
| | | ) S 1 ( S ) 1 (
w hc w w m sat
+ + =
. subscripts water , n hydrocarbo
matrix, saturated, w , sat,m,hc
, saturation water
w
S
porosity,
density, where:
=
=
=
=
|
This is illustrated in the next graph. Note the linear
responses for both a gas and oil sand.
1-5
Density vs Water Saturation - Porosity = 33%
Densities: Oil = 0.8 Gas = 0.001
1.7
1.8
1.9
2
2.1
2.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Water Saturation
D
e
n
s
i
t
y
Oil Gas
1-6
(a) P-wave motion (b) S-wave motion
Since the direction of particle motion for the P-wave is in the same direction as
its wave movement, it will be more affected by the gas sand than the S-wave,
since the direction of particle motion for the S-wave is at right angles to the
direction of its wave movement. Note that there is also S-wave motion out of
the plane shown above.
P- and S-waves
1-7
P and S-wave Velocities
Initially, we will consider only isotropic rocks, in which the
velocities do not depend on direction of travel.
There are two different types of velocities of interest to us:
P-wave, or compressional wave velocity
S-wave, or shear wave velocity.
For an interactive tutorial on the two waves, go to:
http://einstein.byu.edu/~masong/HTMstuff/WaveTrans.html
Here are the equations for velocity derived in their most basic
form using the Lam coefficients:

2
V
P
+
=

=
s
V
where: , = the Lam parameters
and: = density.
1-8
Velocity Equations using K and
Another common way of writing the velocity equations
is with bulk and shear modulus:

3
4
K
V
P
+
=

=
s
V
parameter Lame 2 the
modulus shear the
ility, compressib s rock' the of inverse the
,
3
2
modulus bulk the K
nd
=
=
=
+ = =

1-9
Poissons Ratio
A common way of looking at the ratio of V
P
to V
S
is to
use Poissons ratio, defined as:
2 2
2

o
2
S
P
V
V
: where
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The inverse to the above formula, allowing us to derive
V
P
or V
S
from o, is given by:
1 2
2 2

=
o
o

1-10
Poissons Ratio
There are several values of Poissons ratio and V
P
/V
S

ratio that should be noted:

If V
P
/V
S
= \2, then o = 0


If V
P
/V
S
= 1.5, then o = 0.1 (Gas Case)


If V
P
/V
S
= 2, then o = 1/3 (Wet Case)


If V
P
/V
S
= , then o = 0.5 (V
S
= 0)
A plot of Poissons ratio versus velocity ratio is shown
on the next slide.
1-11
Vp/Vs vs Poisson's Ratio
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Vp/Vs
P
o
i
s
s
o
n
'
s

R
a
t
i
o
Gas Case Wet Case
1-12
Velocity in porous rocks
The previous derivation was for velocity in solid isotropic
rocks. Velocity effects can be modeled by the bulk
average equation as seen below and in the next figure:
| A | A | A A ) S 1 ( t S t ) 1 ( t t
w hc w w m sat
+ + =
V, / 1 t where: = A
Unfortunately, the above equation does not hold for
gas sands, and this lead to the development of other
equations.
1-13
Velocity vs Sw with Volume Avg. Eq.
Por = 33%, Voil = 1300 m/s, Vgas = 300 m/s
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Water Saturation
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
m
/
s
e
c
)
Oil Gas
1-14
Velocity in Porous Rocks (cont)
Other empirical equations have been proposed:
fl m
2
P
V V ) 1 ( V | | + =
However, the best fit to observation has been
obtained with the Biot-Gassmann equations.
C 18 . 2 93 . 6 59 . 5 ) s / km ( V
P
= |
C 89 . 1 91 . 4 52 . 3 ) s / km ( V
S
= |
Raymer et al.
Han et al, where: C = Volume Clay Content
1-15
Dry versus saturated rock
To understand the Biot-Gassmann equations, let us
extend the figure we saw earlier to include the concept of
the dry rock frame, or skeleton, where the pores are
empty, and the saturated rock, where the pores are full:
Rock Matrix Pores / Fluid
Dry rock
frame, or
skeleton
(pores
empty)
Saturated
Rock
(pores full)
1-16
The Biot-Gassmann Equations
Independently, Gassmann (1951) and Biot (1956),
developed the theory of wave propagation in fluid
saturated rocks, by deriving expressions for the
saturated bulk and shear modulii, and substituting into
the regular equations for P- and S-wave velocity:
sat
sat sat
P
3
4
K
V

+
=
sat
sat
s
V

=
Note that
sat
is found using the volume
average equation discussed earlier.
1-17
Biot-Gassmann - Shear Modulus
In the Biot-Gassmann equations, the shear modulus
does not change for varying saturation at constant
porosity :
dry sat
=
where:
sat
= shear modulus of saturated rock,
and:
dry
= shear modulus of dry rock.
1-18
Biot-Gassmann - Saturated Bulk Modulus
The Biot-Gassmann bulk modulus equation is often
written as follows:
2
m
dry
m fl
2
m
dry
dry sat
K
K
K
1
K
)
K
K
1 (
K K

+ =
| |
This equation shows that K
sat
is dependent on the porosity
and fluid content of the rock, as expected.
where sat = saturated rock, dry = dry frame, m = rock matrix,
fl = fluid, and = porosity.
1-19
Biot-Gassmann - Saturated Bulk Modulus
Mavko et al, in The Rock Physics Handbook, re-arranged
the previous equation to give a more intuitive form:
) K K (
K
K K
K
K K
K
fl m
fl
dry m
dry
sat m
sat

=
|
where sat = saturated rock, dry = dry frame, m = rock matrix,
fl = fluid, and = porosity.
Note that K
sat
can then be written:
) K K (
K
fluid ,
K K
K
dry : where
K
fluid dry 1
fluid dry
K fluid dry
K K
K
fl m
fl
dry m
dry
m sat
sat m
sat

=
(

+ +
+
= + =

|
1-20
Biot-Gassmann - Saturated Bulk Modulus
The Saturated Bulk Modulus (K
sat
) is affected by:

Rock frame bulk modulus (K
dry
)
Porosity
Fluid bulk modulus (K
fl
)
-Saturation
-Temperature
-Pore Pressure
Effective Pressure
Overburden Pore pressure
Mineral bulk modulus

1-21
Biot-Gassmann - Shear Bulk Modulus &
Density
Saturated Shear Modulus (
sat
)
Is Equal to Rock frame shear modulus (
dry
)
Porosity
Effective Pressure
Overburden Pore pressure
Saturated Density (
sat
) depends on
Rock matrix density (
M
)
Porosity
Fluid density
-Saturation
-Temperature
-Pore Pressure
1-22
The Rock Matrix Bulk Modulus
The bulk modulus of the solid rock matrix, K
m
is usually
taken from published data that involved measurements
on drill core samples. Typical values are:
K
sandstone
= 40 GPa,

K
limestone
= 60 GPa.
We will now look at how to get estimates of the various
bulk modulus terms in the Biot-Gassmann equations,
starting with the bulk modulus of the solid rock matrix.
Values will be given in GigaPascals (GPa), which are
equivalent to 10
10
dynes/cm
2
.
1-23
The Fluid Bulk Modulus
The fluid bulk modulus can be modeled using the following
equation:
hc
w
w
w
fl
K
S 1
K
S
K
1
+ =
Equations for estimating the values of brine, gas, and
oil bulk modulii are given in Batzle and Wang, 1992,
Seismic Properties of Pore Fluids, Geophysics, 57,
1396-1408. Typical values are:
K
gas
= 0.021 GPa, K
oil
= 0.79 GPa, K
w
= 2.38 GPa
where: K
fl
= bulk modulus of the fluid,
K
w
= bulk modulus of water,
and: K
hc
= bulk modulus of the hydrocarbon.
1-24
Estimating K
dry
For known V
P
, but unknown V
S
, K
dry
can be estimated
(Gregory, 1977) by assuming the dry rock Poissons ratio
o
dry
. Gregory shows that equation (1) can be rewritten as:
For known V
S
and V
P
, K
dry
can be calculated by first
calculating K
sat
and then using Mavkos equation.
2
m
dry
m fl
2
m
dry
dry sat
K
K
K
1
K
)
K
K
1 (
M M

+ =
| |
) 1 (
) 1 ( 3
S : and
, SK 3 / 4 K M
, 3 / 4 K M : where
dry
dry
dry dry dry
sat sat
o
o

=
= + =
+ =
1-25
Estimating K
dry
After a lot of algebra, the previous equation can be written
as the following quadratic equation for a term that
involves K
dry
. Solving for the Biot coefficient | gives the
solution.
0 c b a
2
= + + | |
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
=
1
K
K
K
M
S c
K
M
S 1
K
K
S b
, 1 S a
,
K
K
1 : where
fl
m
m
sat
m
sat
fl
m
m
dry
|
|
|
1-26
Porosity Change
Porosity, dry rock bulk modulus, and the matrix bulk
modulus can be related by the following equation:
m dry P
K
1
K
1
K
=
|
For a known porosity and a computed K
dry
, we can write:
1
m dry
known P
K
1
K
1
K

(
(

= |
If we assume that K
P
stays constant for a small change in
porosity, we can compute a new K
dry
for a new porosity:
1
m P
new
new _ dry
K
1
K
K

(

=
|
1-27
Exercise 1-1
Using the equations on the previous pages, compute the saturated
densities, velocities (P and S), V
P
/V
S
ratio, and Poissons ratio of the
following two sandstones:
(A) | = 0.33, S
W
= 1.0,

W
= 1.0g/cc,
gas
= 0.001 g/cc,
m
= 2.65 g/cc, = 3.31 GPa,
K
m
= 40 GPa, K
gas
= 0.021 GPa, K
W
= 2.38 GPa, K
dry
= 3.25 GPa.

(B) Same as (A), but with S
W
= 0.5, or 50%.
m sat
sat m
sat
K
fluid dry 1
fluid dry
K fluid dry
K K
K
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+
= + =

Hint:
Note: The velocities will be in km/sec.
1-28
Exercise 1-1A Worksheet 1
= + =
+ + =
| |
| | |
w m
w gas w w m sat
) 1 (
) S 1 ( S ) 1 ( ) 1 (
= =
(

=
(
(

+ =

w
1
w
1
gas
w
w
w
fl
K
K
1
K
S 1
K
S
K ) 3 (
=

=
dry m
dry
K K
K
dry ) 2 (
=

=
) K K (
K
fluid ) 4 (
fl m
fl
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+
=
m sat
K
fluid dry 1
fluid dry
K ) 5 (
1-29
Exercise 1-1A Worksheet 2
= =
sat
S
V ) 6 (

=
+
=
sat
sat
P
3
4
K
V ) 7 (

=
S P
V / V ) 8 (
2 ) V / V ( 2
2 ) V / V (
) 9 (
2
S P
2
S P

= o
1-30
Exercise 1-1B Worksheet 1
= + + =
+ + =
| | |
| | |
gas w m
w gas w w m sat
5 . 0 5 . 0 ) 1 (
) S 1 ( S ) 1 ( ) 1 (
=
(
(

+ =
(
(

+ =
1
gas w
1
gas
w
w
w
fl
K
5 . 0
K
5 . 0
K
S 1
K
S
K ) 3 (
= = 1A as same dry ) 2 (
=

=
) K K (
K
fluid ) 4 (
fl m
fl
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+
=
m sat
K
fluid dry 1
fluid dry
K ) 5 (
1-31
Exercise 1-1B Worksheet 2
= =
sat
S
V ) 6 (

=
+
=
sat
sat
P
3
4
K
V ) 7 (

=
S P
V / V ) 8 (
2 ) V / V ( 2
2 ) V / V (
) 9 (
2
S P
2
S P

= o
1-32
Data examples
In the next few slides, we will look at the computed
responses for both a gas-saturated sand and an
oil-saturated sand using the Biot-Gassmann
equation.
We will look at the effect of saturation on both
velocity (V
P
and V
S
) and Poissons Ratio.
Keep in mind that this model assumes that the gas
is uniformly distributed in the fluid. Patchy
saturation provides a different function. (See
Mavko et al: The Rock Physics Handbook.)
1-33
| = 33% K
m
= 40 K
gas
= 0.021 K
dry
= 3.25 = 3.3 GPa
1-34
1-35
0 2 4
EFFECT OF WATER SATURATION
P-WAVE VELOCITY (km/sec)
POISSON'S
RATIO
Gas Sand ( Phi = 33% )
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
50
75
90
94
96
98
99
100
Another way of displaying the data is on a two parameter
plot. Here, Poissons ratio is plotted against P-wave velocity.
1-36
Velocity vs Sw - Oil Case
Porosity = 33%, Koil = 1.0 MPa
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Sw
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
m
/
s
)
Vs Vp
1-37
Poisson's Ratio vs Water Saturation
Oil Case
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Sw
P
o
i
s
s
o
n
'
s

R
a
t
i
o
Poisson's Ratio
1-38
The Mudrock Line
The mudrock line is a linear relationship between V
P
and V
S

derived by Castagna et al (1985). The equation and original
plot are shown below:
V
P
= 1.16 V
S
+ 1360 m/sec = aV
S
+ b
1-39
The Mudrock Line
S S P
aV V
1 2
2 2
V =

=
o
o
This will be illustrated in the next few slides, where a gas
sand is shown below the mudrock line, and then lines of
constant o are superimposed.
Notice that this is not the same as a constant Poissons
ratio, since this would be written as follows, without an
intercept term:
1-40
The Mudrock Line
0
2000
2000
4000
6000
1000 3000 4000 0
1000
3000
5000
V
P
(m/s)
V
S
(m/s)
Mudrock Line
Gas Sand
1-41
The Mudrock Line
0
2000
2000
4000
6000
1000 3000 4000 0
1000
3000
5000
V
P
(m/s)
V
S
(m/s)
Mudrock Line
Gas Sand
o = 1/3 or
Vp/Vs = 2
1-42
The Mudrock Line
0
2000
2000
4000
6000
1000 3000 4000 0
1000
3000
5000
V
P
(m/s)
V
S
(m/s)
Mudrock Line
Gas Sand
o = 1/3 or
Vp/Vs = 2
o = 0.1 or
Vp/Vs = 1.5
1-43
Finally, here is a display of the Mudrock line and the dry
rock line on a Poissons ratio versus P-wave velocity plot.
1-44
Exercise 1-2 - Instructions
On the next page is a blank plot of Poissons
ratio versus P-wave velocity. Using the tables
on the subsequent pages, graph the values of
Poissons ratio against P-wave velocity for the
different values of porosity and water Saturation.
Note that this is the same example that was
used in the notes.
1-45
Exercise 1-2 - Plot
P-wave Velocity (km/sec)
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
1 2 3 4 5 6
1-46
Exercise 1-2 - Sw = 100%
Porosity Sw Density Vp Vs Vp/Vs Pois Ratio
0.00 1.00 2.650 5964 3919 1.522 0.120
0.05 1.00 2.567 4231 2417 1.750 0.258
0.10 1.00 2.485 3558 1923 1.850 0.294
0.15 1.00 2.402 3166 1661 1.906 0.310
0.20 1.00 2.320 2903 1494 1.943 0.320
0.25 1.00 2.237 2713 1379 1.968 0.326
0.30 1.00 2.155 2570 1294 1.986 0.330
0.35 1.00 2.072 2459 1229 2.000 0.333
0.40 1.00 1.990 2372 1179 2.012 0.336
0.45 1.00 1.907 2303 1140 2.021 0.338
0.50 1.00 1.825 2249 1109 2.028 0.339
0.55 1.00 1.742 2207 1085 2.035 0.341
0.60 1.00 1.660 2175 1066 2.040 0.342
0.65 1.00 1.577 2153 1053 2.045 0.343
0.70 1.00 1.495 2138 1044 2.049 0.344
0.75 1.00 1.412 2132 1039 2.053 0.344
0.80 1.00 1.330 2133 1038 2.056 0.345
0.85 1.00 1.247 2142 1040 2.059 0.346
0.90 1.00 1.165 2159 1047 2.061 0.346
0.95 1.00 1.082 2184 1058 2.064 0.347
1.00 1.00 1.000 2219 1074 2.066 0.347
1-47
Exercise 1-2 - Sw = 5%
Porosity Sw Density Vp Vs Vp/Vs Pois Ratio
0.00 0.05 2.650 5964 3919 1.522 0.120
0.05 0.05 2.520 3722 2439 1.526 0.123
0.10 0.05 2.390 2994 1961 1.526 0.124
0.15 0.05 2.260 2615 1712 1.527 0.124
0.20 0.05 2.130 2382 1560 1.527 0.125
0.25 0.05 2.000 2227 1458 1.527 0.125
0.30 0.05 1.870 2121 1389 1.527 0.125
0.35 0.05 1.740 2049 1341 1.527 0.125
0.40 0.05 1.610 2002 1311 1.527 0.125
0.45 0.05 1.480 1976 1294 1.527 0.125
0.50 0.05 1.350 1969 1289 1.528 0.125
0.55 0.05 1.220 1980 1296 1.528 0.125
0.60 0.05 1.090 2010 1316 1.528 0.125
0.65 0.05 0.960 2061 1349 1.528 0.125
0.70 0.05 0.830 2140 1401 1.528 0.125
0.75 0.05 0.700 2254 1475 1.528 0.125
0.80 0.05 0.570 2421 1585 1.528 0.125
0.85 0.05 0.440 2676 1752 1.528 0.125
0.90 0.05 0.310 3102 2030 1.528 0.125
0.95 0.05 0.180 3965 2596 1.528 0.125
1.00 0.05 0.050 7340 4805 1.528 0.125
1-48
Exercise 1-2 - Porosity = 5%
Porosity Sw Density Vp Vs Vp/Vs Pois Ratio
0.05 0.00 2.518 3723 2441 1.525 0.123
0.05 0.05 2.520 3722 2439 1.526 0.123
0.05 0.10 2.523 3720 2438 1.526 0.124
0.05 0.15 2.525 3719 2437 1.526 0.124
0.05 0.20 2.528 3718 2436 1.526 0.124
0.05 0.25 2.530 3717 2435 1.527 0.124
0.05 0.30 2.533 3716 2433 1.527 0.124
0.05 0.35 2.535 3715 2432 1.527 0.125
0.05 0.40 2.538 3714 2431 1.528 0.125
0.05 0.45 2.540 3714 2430 1.528 0.126
0.05 0.50 2.543 3713 2429 1.529 0.126
0.05 0.55 2.545 3713 2427 1.530 0.127
0.05 0.60 2.547 3714 2426 1.531 0.128
0.05 0.65 2.550 3715 2425 1.532 0.129
0.05 0.70 2.552 3717 2424 1.533 0.130
0.05 0.75 2.555 3720 2423 1.536 0.132
0.05 0.80 2.557 3726 2422 1.539 0.135
0.05 0.85 2.560 3737 2420 1.544 0.139
0.05 0.90 2.562 3758 2419 1.554 0.146
0.05 0.95 2.565 3815 2418 1.578 0.164
0.05 1.00 2.567 4231 2417 1.750 0.258
1-49
Exercise 1-2 - Porosity = 15%
Porosity Sw Density Vp Vs Vp/Vs Pois Ratio
0.15 0.00 2.253 2618 1715 1.527 0.124
0.15 0.05 2.260 2614 1712 1.527 0.124
0.15 0.10 2.268 2611 1709 1.527 0.125
0.15 0.15 2.275 2607 1707 1.527 0.125
0.15 0.20 2.283 2603 1704 1.528 0.125
0.15 0.25 2.290 2600 1701 1.528 0.126
0.15 0.30 2.298 2596 1698 1.529 0.126
0.15 0.35 2.305 2593 1696 1.529 0.126
0.15 0.40 2.313 2590 1693 1.530 0.127
0.15 0.45 2.320 2587 1690 1.530 0.128
0.15 0.50 2.328 2584 1687 1.531 0.128
0.15 0.55 2.335 2581 1685 1.532 0.129
0.15 0.60 2.343 2579 1682 1.534 0.130
0.15 0.65 2.350 2578 1679 1.535 0.132
0.15 0.70 2.358 2578 1677 1.537 0.133
0.15 0.75 2.365 2579 1674 1.540 0.136
0.15 0.80 2.373 2582 1671 1.545 0.139
0.15 0.85 2.380 2590 1669 1.552 0.145
0.15 0.90 2.387 2608 1666 1.565 0.155
0.15 0.95 2.395 2661 1663 1.600 0.179
0.15 1.00 2.402 3166 1661 1.906 0.310
1-50
Exercise 1-2 - Porosity = 33%
Porosity Sw Density Vp Vs Vp/Vs Pois Ratio
0.33 0.00 1.776 2084 1364 1.527 0.125
0.33 0.05 1.792 2074 1358 1.527 0.125
0.33 0.10 1.809 2065 1352 1.528 0.125
0.33 0.15 1.825 2056 1346 1.528 0.125
0.33 0.20 1.842 2048 1340 1.528 0.126
0.33 0.25 1.858 2039 1334 1.529 0.126
0.33 0.30 1.875 2031 1328 1.529 0.127
0.33 0.35 1.891 2023 1322 1.530 0.127
0.33 0.40 1.908 2015 1316 1.531 0.128
0.33 0.45 1.924 2007 1311 1.531 0.128
0.33 0.50 1.941 2000 1305 1.532 0.129
0.33 0.55 1.957 1993 1300 1.533 0.130
0.33 0.60 1.974 1986 1294 1.535 0.131
0.33 0.65 1.990 1980 1289 1.537 0.133
0.33 0.70 2.007 1975 1284 1.539 0.135
0.33 0.75 2.023 1972 1278 1.542 0.137
0.33 0.80 2.040 1970 1273 1.547 0.141
0.33 0.85 2.056 1972 1268 1.555 0.147
0.33 0.90 2.073 1983 1263 1.570 0.159
0.33 0.95 2.089 2024 1258 1.609 0.185
0.33 1.00 2.105 2500 1253 1.995 0.332
1-51
Exercise 1-2 - Porosity = 50%
Porosity Sw Density Vp Vs Vp/Vs Pois Ratio
0.50 0.00 1.325 1987 1301 1.527 0.125
0.50 0.05 1.350 1969 1289 1.528 0.125
0.50 0.10 1.375 1951 1277 1.528 0.125
0.50 0.15 1.400 1934 1266 1.528 0.126
0.50 0.20 1.425 1918 1255 1.529 0.126
0.50 0.25 1.450 1902 1244 1.529 0.126
0.50 0.30 1.475 1886 1233 1.530 0.127
0.50 0.35 1.500 1871 1223 1.530 0.127
0.50 0.40 1.525 1857 1213 1.531 0.128
0.50 0.45 1.550 1843 1203 1.532 0.129
0.50 0.50 1.575 1829 1193 1.533 0.129
0.50 0.55 1.600 1816 1184 1.534 0.130
0.50 0.60 1.625 1804 1175 1.535 0.132
0.50 0.65 1.650 1792 1166 1.537 0.133
0.50 0.70 1.675 1782 1157 1.540 0.135
0.50 0.75 1.700 1773 1149 1.543 0.138
0.50 0.80 1.725 1765 1140 1.548 0.142
0.50 0.85 1.750 1762 1132 1.556 0.148
0.50 0.90 1.775 1767 1124 1.572 0.160
0.50 0.95 1.800 1800 1116 1.612 0.187
0.50 1.00 1.825 2249 1109 2.028 0.339
1-52
Tips for using of Gassmanns equation
Km: Mineral term
Text book values have been measured on pure mineral
samples (crystals).
Mineral values can be averaged using Reuss averaging to
estimate K
m
for rocks composed of mixed lithologies.
Kdry: Rock frame
Represents the incompressibility of the rock frame
(including cracks and pores).
Often pressure dependent due to cracks closing with
increased effective pressure.
Difficult to obtain accurate values in many cases.
Laboratory measurements of representative core plugs
under reservoir pressure may be the best source of data.
1-53
Tips for using of Gassmanns equation:
CAUTIONS:

Rocks with large Km and Kdry values (most carbonates)
appear insensitive to saturation changes in Gassmann
theory.

Gassmann assumed that pore pressure remains constant
during wave propagation. This implies fluids are mobile
between pores and all stress is carried by K
dry
.

This assumption is violated at high frequencies in highly
variable and compressible pore systems.

Carbonates with an abundance of crack-type pores and
heterogeneous pore systems are not suitable for standard
Gassmann theory.

1-54
Fluid Replacement Modeling (FRM)
Estimates Vp, Vs and density changes that occur when saturation
changes.

FRM requires:
Top and bottom depth of the reservoir
P wave velocity log
Porosity and/or density information
Shear wave velocity information (log or estimate)
Saturation information (consistent with input well logs)
Rock matrix information (from mineral tables)
Fluid properties (From B-W fluid calculator)
1-55
Fluid Replacement Modeling (FRM)
Input P wave and Density information:

FRM operates on the log data on a sample by sample basis.

Areas with low porosity, or high shale content should be excluded
using gamma ray, density or porosity cut-offs

Density and porosity information are required. This information
must be consistent.

FRM can accept:
-Density log with saturation data, matrix and fluid densities
(porosity is calculated)
-Porosity log with saturation data, matrix and fluid densities
(density log is calculated)
-Density and porosity logs with saturation data and fluid
densities (matrix densities are calculated)

FRM can be sensitive to poor quality or inconsistent log data.

1-56
Fluid Replacement Modeling (FRM)
Shear wave information:

Shear wave information is required to calculate K
dry
from the saturated
P wave log information.

Shear wave information can come from:
Dipole Shear wave sonic logs
Estimated S-wave velocity logs using the ARCO mudrock line
Dry rock Poissons ratio (try values from .12 to .25 for
sandstones)

The Mudrock line underestimates S wave velocities in unconsolidated,
highly porous sands. This may result in incorrect estimates of the dry
rock Poissons ratio and K
dry
.

In that case, suggest: replace the estimated S wave velocities for these
sands in a synthetic S wave log with a Vp/Vs of 2.0.
1-57
Fluid Replacement Modeling (FRM)
Water Saturation information:

Water saturation for the initial reservoir conditions may be
provided as a constant value or as a log.

Saturation information must agree with the recorded sonic log
and density values.

1-58
Fluid Replacement Modeling (FRM)
Water Saturation
information:

The sonic tool measures
the fastest travel path from
source to receiver. In many
cases, the sonic velocity
represents the flushed well
bore annulus rather than
the hydrocarbon saturation
formation.
Petrophysicists can
provide water saturation
logs that represent the
conditions of the invaded
region.
Flushed regions often
exhibit patchy saturation.

1-59
The Fizz Water issue:


When multiple pore fluids are present, K
fl
is usually
calculated by a Reuss averaging technique:
Kfl vs Sw and Sg
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
Water saturation (fraction)
B
u
l
k

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
G
p
a
)
This averaging
technique assumes
uniform fluid
distribution!

-Gas and liquid must
be evenly distributed
in every pore.

g
g
o
o
w
w
fl
K
S
K
S
K
S
K
1
+ + =
This method heavily biases compressibility of the
combined fluid to the most compressible phase.
1-60
The Fizz Water issue


Patchy Saturation:

When fluids are not uniformly mixed, effective modulus
values can not be estimated from Reuss averaging.

Non-uniform (or patchy) fluid distributions are defined relative
to permeability, fluid viscosity and frequency bandwidth
(scale dependent: millimeters for logs and meters for seismic).

1-61
The Fizz Water issue


Patchy Saturation:
When patch sizes are large, with respect to the seismic
wavelength, Voigt averaging gives the best estimate of K
fluid

(Domenico, 1976).

When patch sizes are of intermediate size, Gassmann
substitution should be performed for each patch area
and a volume average should be made (Dvorkin et al, 1999).

This can be approximated by using a power-law
averaging technique (Brie et al, 1995):

g g o o w w fl
S K S K S K K + + =
g
e
w g w fl
K S ) K K ( K + =
1-62
The Fizz Water issue:


Patchy Saturation:
Gassmann predicted velocities
Unconsolidated sand matrix
Porosity = 30%
100% Gas to 100% Brine saturation
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
Water Saturation (fraction)
V
p

(
k
m
/
s
)
Patchy
Voigt
Reuss
1-63
The Fizz Water issue


According to a paper by Han and Batzle, The Leading Edge, April,
2002:
the Fizz Water effect is greatly dependent on the pressure of the
formation.
1-64
The Fizz Water issue


1-65
The Fizz Water issue


Note the change of Fluid Modulus as a function of
pressure.
1-66
The Fizz Water issue


1-67
Conclusions
An understanding of rock physics is crucial for the interpretation of
AVO anomalies.

The volume average equation can be used to model density in a
water sand, but this equation does not match observations for
velocities in a gas sand.

The Biot-Gassmann equations match observations well for
unconsolidated gas sands.

When dealing with more complex porous media with patchy
saturation, or fracture type porosity (e.g. carbonates), the Biot-
Gassmann equations do not hold.

The ARCO mudrock line is a good empirical tool for the wet sands
and shales.
1-68
Exercise 1-1A Worksheet 1 Answers
11 . 2 ) 1 (
) S 1 ( S ) 1 ( ) 1 (
w m
w gas w w m sat
= + =
+ + =
| |
| | |
38 . 2 K
K
1
K
S 1
K
S
K ) 3 (
w
1
w
1
gas
w
w
w
fl
= =
(

=
(
(

+ =

088 . 0
K K
K
dry ) 2 (
dry m
dry
=

=
192 . 0
) K K (
K
fluid ) 4 (
fl m
fl
=

=
|
754 . 8 K
fluid dry 1
fluid dry
K ) 5 (
m sat
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+
=
1-69
Exercise 1-1A Worksheet 2 Answers
s / m 1250 V ) 6 (
sat
S
= =

s / m 2500
3
4
K
V ) 7 (
sat
sat
P
=
+
=

2 V / V ) 8 (
S P
=
333 . 0
2 ) V / V ( 2
2 ) V / V (
) 9 (
2
S P
2
S P
=

= o
1-70
Exercise 1-1B Worksheet 1 Answers
94 . 1 5 . 0 5 . 0 ) 1 (
) S 1 ( S ) 1 ( ) 1 (
gas w m
w gas w w m sat
= + + =
+ + =
| | |
| | |
042 . 0
K
5 . 0
K
5 . 0
K
S 1
K
S
K ) 3 (
1
gas w
1
gas
w
w
w
fl
=
(
(

+ =
(
(

+ =

088 . 0 1A as same dry ) 2 ( = =
0032 . 0
) K K (
K
fluid ) 4 (
fl m
fl
=

=
|
356 . 3 K
fluid dry 1
fluid dry
K ) 5 (
m sat
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+
=
1-71
Exercise 1-1B Worksheet 2 Answers
s / m 1305 V ) 6 (
sat
S
= =

s / m 2000
3
4
K
V ) 7 (
sat
sat
P
=
+
=

53 . 1 V / V ) 8 (
S P
=
13 . 0
2 ) V / V ( 2
2 ) V / V (
) 9 (
2
S P
2
S P
=

= o