EVAPORATION

Definition: Process by which water is changed from the liquid or solid

state into the gaseous state through the transfer of heat energy (ASCE,
1949).

It occurs when some water molecules attain sufficient kinetic energy to
break through the water surface and escape into the atmosphere (~ 600
cal needed to evaporate 1 gram of water).

Depends on the supply of heat energy and the vapor pressure gradient
(which, in turn, depends on water and air temperatures, wind,
atmospheric pressure, solar radiation, etc).

TRANSPIRATION (T)
Transpiration is the evaporation occurring
through plant leaves (stomatal openings).

Transpiration is affected by plant physiology
and environmental factors, such as:
- Type of vegetation
- Stage and growth of plants
- Soil conditions (type and moisture)
- Climate and weather
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)
Combined loss of water vapor from within the leaves of
plants (transpiration) and evaporation of liquid water
from water surfaces, bare soil and vegetative surfaces.

Globally, about 62% of the precipitation that falls on the
continent is evapotranspired (~72,000 km3/yr); 92% of
which from land surfaces evapotranspiration and 3%
from open water evaporation (source: Dingman,
Physical Hydrology).

Approximately 70% of the mean annual rainfall in the
U.S. is returned to the atmosphere as evaporation or
transpiration.
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)
In practice, the terms E and ET are often used to
mean the same thing - the evaporation from the
land surface.

Therefore, you must use the context to
determine what the term evaporation means in a
specific case (i.e., is it just from an open water
surface or the entire land surface?).



POTENTIAL EVAPORATION (PE)
is the climate controlled evaporation from
an open water surface with unlimited
supply (and no thermal capacity).
POTENTIAL
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (PET)
is the ET that would occur from a well
vegetated surface when moisture
supply is not limiting (often
calculated as the PE).

Actual evapotranspiration (AET;
ET) drops below its potential level as
the soil dries.
DESIGN
Evaporation must be considered in the design of
large water storage reservoirs, large-scale water
resources planning and water supply studies.

For flood flow studies, urban drainage design
applications it may be neglected.

Example: during typical storm periods with
intensities of 0.5 in/hr, evaporation is on the
order of 0.01 in/hr.

METHODS FOR ESTIMATING
EVAPORATION
Water budget methods
Energy budget methods
Mass transfer techniques (e.g., Meyer,
Thornthwaile-Holzman)
Combination of energy budget and mass
transfer methods (e.g.,Penman)

Energy budget method
Net energy advected
(net energy content
of incoming and
outcoming water -
Ee
Total solar
radiation - R
t
Reflected solar
radiation - R
r
Energy used for
evaporation
(latent heat)- E
e
Sensible heat loss
from the water
body to the
atmosphere - H
n
Energy stored - E
s
Net long-wave radiation
exchange between the
atmospere and the water
body- R
1
R
1
includes long-wave (LW) radiation from the atmosphere, reflected LW radiation, LW radiation emitted by water
Energy budget method
E
e
R
t
R
r
E
e
H
n
E
s
R
1
R
1
includes long-wave (LW) radiation from the atmosphere, reflected LW radiation, LW radiation emitted by water
( ) ( )
1
2
day - cm
cal g
R H E R R E E
n e r t a s
+ + + + =
(

Energy
budget
method
Energy budget method
Amount of evaporation - E
| | surface water the of re temperatu -
ion vaporizat of heat latent - 52 . 0 596
cm
cal g
10
day
mm
3
C T
T H
H
E
E
v
v
e

=
(

=
(

Energy budget method

Characteristics:

most accurate method (evaporation is a function of the
energy state of the water system)
difficult to evaluate all terms
energy balance equation has to be simplified
empirical formulas are used (although radiation
measurements are preferable)

Water budget method
Surface runoff - Q
r
Subsurface
runoff - Q
s
Inflow- Q

Outflow- Q
0
Evaporation- E

Subsurface seepage losses- Q
d
( ) ( ) = + + + + + =
A
A
E E Q Q Q Q Q P
t
S
d s r 0
Precipitation - P

Water budget method
Units:

Depth of evaporation:
p
p
nA
E
E
nA
E
E
) 4 . 25 ( 12
day
mm
12
day
in
*
*
=
(

=
(

n number of days
A
p
area of the pond [ac]
(

month
ft - ac
E
Water budget method

Characteristics:
- Simple
- Difficult to estimate Q
d
and Q
s
- Unreliable, accuracy will increase as t
increases
Example on water balance model
Mass transfer methods - definitions
e actual vapor pressure (difference in the atmospheric pressure with
and without the vapor)

e
s
saturated vapor pressure (partial pressure of water vapor in
saturated air)

T [C] air temperature

R
h
relative humidity
| |

14.1 Table ;
36 . 1
] mb [
Hg mm
;
3 . 237
3 . 17
exp 11 . 6 ] mb [
s
h
s
s
s
e
e
R
e
e
T
T
e
=
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
Evaporation is a diffusive process (moves from
where its concentration is larger to where its
concentration is smaller at a rate that is
proportional to the gradient of concentration):
E = b
0
(e
s0
e
a
)

e
s0
vapore pressure of the evaporating surface;
saturation vapor pressure at the water surface
temperature Ts
- e
a
vapor pressure of overlying air at the same
height
- b
0
empirical coefficient that has to be
calibrated
E = b
0
(e
s0
e
a
)

Studies showed that
b
0
= function (air turbulence)=fn(v)

E = b
1
fn(v)(e
s
e
a
)

Meyers formula:
E = 0.5 (1 + 0.1 v
30
)(e
s
e
a
)
v
30
- wind speed [mi/h] at 30 ft height;
e
s;
e
a
[in Hg]
E [in/day]

b
0
= f(v, e
s
, e
a
, T
a
, T
w
)

Thornthwaite-Holzman equation (no calibration)

b
0
= f(v,T,k);
k Von Karman constant (0.41)

( ) 4 . 459 ln
) )( ( 833
2
1
2
1 2 2 1
2
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
T
z
z
v v e e k
E
Example
Combination approach Penman equation
Combine mass-transfer and energy-balance equations
to derive an evaporation equation that does not
require water surface temperature data.

transfer mass -
day
mm
radiation net -
day
mm

n evaporatio -
day
mm
) 24 14 (
(

+ A
+ A
~
ao
n
w
ao n
w
E
E
H
E E
H
o
o
Penman equation:
( )
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=

= A
3 . 237
3 . 17
exp
3 . 237
083 , 25
36 . 1
1
) 14 14 (
2
0
*
0
T
T
T
T T
e e
a
[mm Hg/C] slope of the saturation vapor pressure curve at mean temperature
T
0
[C] temperature of the water surface
T

[C] temperature of the air
e
0
[mm Hg] - vapor pressure of the water surface
e
a
* [mm Hg] - saturated vapor pressure at temperature T
o
o
+ A
+ A
~
ao n
w
E E
H
Penman equation:
o
o
+ A
+ A
~
ao n
w
E E
H
E
n
[mm/day] net radiation

Start with energy equation:


R
n
net radiation
R
I
amount of energy absorbed (shortwave)
R
B
net outward flow of longwave radiation
B I n
R R R =
(

day cm
cal - g
2
Penman equation:
R
I
[g-cal/cm
2
-day] amount of energy absorbed (shortwave)
R
A
[g-cal/cm
2
-day] total possible radiation for the period of estimation;
it is function of latitude and season; Table 14-3.
r reflection coef. (0.05-0.12)
a,b empirical coef. (a=0.2; b=0.5)
n/D fraction of possible sunshine (from climatic atlas)

( )
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
=
D
n
b a r R R
R R R
A I
B I n
1
o
o
+ A
+ A
~
ao n
w
E E
H
R
n
[g-cal/cm
2
-day] net radiation
R
I
[g-cal/cm
2
-day] amount of energy absorbed (shortwave)
R
B
[g-cal/cm
2
-day] net outward flow of longwave radiation
e [mm Hg] actual vapor pressure
T [C] air temperature
n/D fraction of possible sunshine (from climatic atlas)
( ) ( )
(

=
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
=

day C cm
cal
10 1777 . 1
8 . 0 2 . 0 077 . 0 47 . 0 273
4 2
7
4
o
o
D
n
e T R
R R R
B
B I n
Penman equation:
o
o
+ A
+ A
~
ao n
w
E E
H
ion vaporizat of heat latent - 52 . 0 596
cm
cal - g
radiation net
day cm
cal - g
radiation net 10
day
mm
3
2
T H
R
H
R
E
v
n
v
n
n
=
(

=
(

Penman equation:
o
o
+ A
+ A
~
ao n
w
E E
H
En net radiation
R
n
net radiation
H
v
latent heat of vaporization
T H
H
R
E
R
v
v
n
n
n
52 . 0 596
cm
cal - g
10
day
mm
day cm
cal - g
3
2
=
(

=
(

Penman equation:
o
o
+ A
+ A
~
ao n
w
E E
H
value) (typical 0.485
ion vaporizat of heat latent - 52 . 0 596
cm
cal - g
pressure c atmospheri
pressure constant at air of heat specific
11) - (14
62 . 0
3
=
=
(

=
o
o
T H
p
c
H
p c
v
a
p
v
a p
Penman equation:
o
o
+ A
+ A
~
ao n
w
E E
E H ) (
( )( )
| |
| |
height m 2 at spead wind - [m/sec]
ature air temper at pressure vapor actual - Hg mm
ature air temper at pressure vapor saturated - Hg mm
55 . 0 2 . 0 35 . 0
law) y diffusivit on (based transfer mass -
day
mm

0
V
T e
T e
V e e E
E
a
a s
s a
ao
+ =
(

Penman equation:
| |
| | | | | |
4 . 25
1
12
1
acres Area days
day
mm
ft - acre
n evaporatio total - ft - acre
n evaporatio -
day
mm

(

=
+ A
+ A
~
(

n H E
E
E E
H
w
ao n
w
o
o
example

Measuring evaporation

PE = Rainfall + Irrigation - Percolation
Irrigated lysimeter
Atmometer
4 ft
6 in
Wooden
support
Galvanized
steel
10 in
U.S. Weather Bureau Class A Pan
Evaporation pan
Surface runoff - Q
r
( ) ( )
t
S
P E
t
S
E P
E Q Q Q Q Q P
t
S
p p
d s r
A
A
=
A
A
=
+ + + + + =
A
A
0
Subsurface
runoff - Q
s
Inflow- Q

Outflow- Q

Evaporation - E

Subsurface seepage losses- Q
d
Precipitation - P

Evaporation Pan
Historical records of daily pan evaporation
are available from the National Climatic
Data Center (NCDC) for U.S. Weather
Buruau Class A Land pans.
Evaporation Pan
We are not really interested in what
evaporates from a pan; instead we want to
know the regional evaporation from land
surface or the evaporation from a nearby
lake. Unfortunately, pan evaporation is
often a poor indicator of these variables
(due in part to pan boundary effects and
limited heat storage).

Evaporation Pan

Evaporation from an open water surface (E) is
usually estimated from the pan evaporation (Ep)
as:
E = K Ep
where K is the pan coefficient (regional coef,
usually around ~0.7). Similar expressions are
also used in practice to estimate potential
evapotranspiration from pan data.
Pan coefficient
FIGURE 2. Source:
Farnsworth,
Richard K., Edwin
S. Thompson, and
Eugene L. Peck.
After Map 4: Pan
Coefficients.

In NOAA Technical
Report NWS 33,
Evaporation Atlas
for the Contiguous
48 United States,
NWS, NOAA, 1982.
evapotranspiration from satellite data
When a surface evaporates, it looses energy and
cools itself. It is that cooling that can be observed from
space. Satellites can map the infrared heat radiated
from Earth, thus enabling to distinguish the cool
surfaces from the warm surfaces.
winter
summer