RAM PRAVESH KUMAR

rpkiith@iith.ac.in

NIT DELHI
Faculty Of Electronics and
Communication Technology
Boolean Algebra
2
Boolean Functions
Boolean algebra provides the operations and
the rules for working with the set {0, 1}.

Electronic and optical switches can be
studied using this set and the rules of
Boolean algebra.

We are going to focus on three operations:
Boolean complementation,
Boolean sum, and
Boolean product
3
Boolean Functions and Logic Gates
The complement is
denoted by a bar.
It is defined by

0=1 1=0

The Boolean sum,
denoted by + or by OR
(inclusive OR), has the
following values:
1+1=1 1+0=1
0+1=1 0+0=0
Not Gate Inverter
OR Gate
4
The Boolean product,
denoted by or by
AND, has the
following values:
11=1 10=0
01=0 00=0

XOR (exclusive OR)
11=0 10=1
01=1 00=0
xy =xy+xy
Boolean Functions and Logic Gates
AND Gate
XOR Gate
5
NAND and NOR are two very important gates.
Their symbols and truth tables are shown below
Boolean Functions and Logic Gates
NOR
NAND
x y = x y
x + y= x + y
NAND
NOR
6
Boolean Functions
7
Boolean Functions
The complement, Boolean sum, and Boolean
product correspond the Logical operators ,
v, and . respectively, where
0 corresponds to F , and 1 corresponds to T.

10+ (0+1)=0
Its logical equivalent is
(T . F) v (F v T) F


8
Boolean Expressions and Boolean Functions
Definition: Let B = {0, 1}. The variable x is called
a Boolean variable if it assumes values only from
B.
A function from B
n
, the set {(x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) |x
i
eB,
1 s i s n}, to B is called a Boolean function of
degree n.

Boolean functions can be represented using
expressions made up from the variables and
Boolean operations.
9
Boolean Expressions and Boolean Functions
Example: the function F(x,y)=xy from the set
of ordered pairs of Boolean variable to the
set {0, 1} is a Boolean function of degree 2
with F(1,1)=0, F(1,0)=1, F(0,1)=0, and
F(0,0)=0.


this function
From B
2
To B

x y F(x,y)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
10
Boolean Expressions and Boolean Functions
The Boolean expressions in the variables
x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
are defined recursively as:

0,1,x
1
,x
2
,,x
n
are Boolean expressions.
If E
1
and E
2
are Boolean expressions, then
E
1
, E
1
E
2
, and E
1
+E
2
are Boolean expressions.

Each Boolean expression represents a Boolean
function. The values of this function are
obtained by substituting 0 and 1 for the
variables in the expression.

11
Boolean Expressions and Boolean Functions
Example: Find the value of the Boolean function
F(x,y,z)=xy+z (this function From B
3
To B)

Definition: The Boolean functions F and G of n
variables are equal if and only if
F(b
1
, b
2
, , b
n
) = G(b
1
, b
2
, , b
n
)
whenever b
1
, b
2
, , b
n
belong to B.
Two different Boolean expressions that represent the
same function are called equivalent.
For example, the Boolean expressions xy, xy+0,
and xy1 are equivalent
12
Example: Find the value of the Boolean function
F(x,y,z)=xy+z (this function From B
3
To B)


A Boolean function of degree n can be represented by an
n-cube (hypercube) with the corresponding function value
at each vertex.
Boolean Expressions and Boolean Functions
001
111 110
011
100
010
000
101
13
Boolean Expressions and Boolean Functions
The complement of the Boolean function F is the
function F
where F(b
1
, b
2
, , b
n
) = F(b
1
, b
2
, , b
n
)

Let F and G be Boolean functions of degree n.
The Boolean sum F+G is defined by
(F+G)(b
1
,b
2
,,b
n
) = F(b
1
,b
2
, ,b
n
)+G(b
1
,b
2
,,b
n
)
and Boolean product FG is defined by
(FG)(b
1
,b
2
, ,b
n
) = F(b
1
,b
2
, ,b
n
) G(b
1
,b
2
, ,b
n
)

14
Boolean Expressions and Boolean Functions
Question: How many different Boolean functions
of degree n are there?
Solution:
There are 2
n
different n-tuples of 0s and 1s.
A Boolean function is an assignment of 0 or 1 to
each of these 2
n
different n-tuples.
Therefore, there are 2
2
n
different Boolean
functions.

15
Boolean Expressions and Boolean Functions
Question: How many different Boolean functions
of degree 4 are there? 16
16
Boolean Expressions and Boolean Functions
Question: How many different Boolean functions
of degree 1 are there?
Solution: There are four of them, F
1
,F
2
,F
3
, and
F
4

x F
1
F
2
F
3
F
4
0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1
17
Identities of Boolean algebra
18
Identities of Boolean algebra
19
Identities of Boolean algebra
20
Identities of Boolean algebra
21
Identities of Boolean algebra (Duality)
There are useful identities of Boolean expressions that
can help us to transform an expression A into an
equivalent expression B (see previous table)
We can derive additional identities with the help of the
dual of a Boolean expression.
Duality principle
The Boolean equation remains valid if we take the dual
of the expression on both sides of the equals sign.
The dual of a Boolean expression is obtained by
interchanging Boolean sums and Boolean products and
interchanging 0s and 1s.
22
Identities of Boolean algebra (Duality)
Examples:
The dual of x(y + z) is x + yz
The dual of x1 + (y + z) is (x + 0) ( y . z).

The dual of a Boolean function F represented by a
Boolean expression is the function represented by
the dual of this expression.
This dual function, denoted by F
d
, does not depend
on the particular Boolean expression used to
represent F.
23
Identities of Boolean algebra (Duality)
Therefore, an identity between functions
represented by Boolean expressions remains valid
when the duals of both sides of the identity are
taken.
We can use this fact, called the duality principle,
to derive new identities.
For example, consider the absorption law
x(x + y) = x.
By taking the duals of both sides of this identity,
we obtain the equation x + xy = x, which is also an
identity (and also called an absorption law).
24
Definition of a Boolean Algebra
All the properties of Boolean functions and
expressions that we have discovered also apply to
other mathematical structures such as
propositions and sets and the operations defined on
them.
If we can show that a particular structure is a
Boolean algebra, then we know that all results
established about Boolean algebras apply to this
structure.
For this purpose, we need an abstract definition of
a Boolean algebra.
25
Definition of a Boolean Algebra
Definition: A Boolean algebra is a set B with two
binary operations v and ., elements 0 and 1, and a
unary operation such that the following
properties hold for all x, y, and z in B:
x v 0 = x and x . 1 = x (identity laws)
x v (x) = 1 and x . (x) = 0 (Complement laws)
(x v y) v z = x v (y v z) and
(x . y) . z = x . (y . z) and (associative laws)
x v y = y v x and x . y = y . x (commutative laws)
x v (y . z) = (x v y) . (x v z) and
x . (y v z) = (x . y) v (x . z) (distributive laws)
26
Exercises
pp. (756-757)
1-3
5
7
9-10
12-13
24-28
27
Representing Boolean Functions
Two important problems of Boolean algebra will
be studied in the next slides:

Given the value of a Boolean function, how can
a Boolean expression that represents this
function be found?

Is there a smaller set of operators that can
be used to represent all Boolean functions?
28
Representing Boolean Functions
Any Boolean function can be represented as a :
Sum of products (SOP) of variables and their
complements. Disjunctive normal form (DNF)
Sum-of-products Expansions


Or
Product of sums (POS) of variables and their
complements. Conjunctive normal form (CNF)
Product-of-sums Expansions

29
Representing Boolean Functions
A literal is a Boolean variable or its complement.
A minterm of Boolean variables x
1
,,x
n
is a
Boolean product of n literals y
1
y
2
y
n
, where y
i
is
either the literal x
i
or its complement x
i
.
Note that the minterm y
1
y
2
y
n
has the value 1
Iff each y
i
is 1.

A maxterm of Boolean variables x
1
,,x
n
is a
Boolean sum of n literals y
1
y
2
y
n
, where y
i
is
either the literal x
i
or its complement x
i
.
Note that the maxterm y
1
y
2
y
n
has the value 0
Iff each y
i
is 0.
30
Representing Boolean Functions
Minterms and maxterms
The table below illustrates the minterms and
maxterms for three input Boolean variables
31
Representing Boolean Functions
Find Boolean expressions that represent the
function F(A,B,C) which is given in the following
table.
32
Representing Boolean Functions
Sum-of-products Expansions (DNF)
Product -of- sums Expansions (CNF)
33
Representing Boolean Functions
34
Representing Boolean Functions
35
Representing Boolean Functions
36
Representing Boolean Functions
For example
37
Representing Boolean Functions
Example Find a minterm that equal 1 if x
1
= x
3
=0
and x
2
= x
4
=x
5
=1 and equals 0 otherwise.

The minterm is x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5


Example Find the sum-of-products expansion for
the function F(x,y,z)=(x+y)z (truth table)
F(x,y,z)=(x+y)z
=xz+yz Distributive law
=x1z+1yz Identity law
=x(y+y)z+(x+x)yz Unity law
=xy z+xyz+xyz+xyz Distributive law
=xy z+xyz+xyz Idempotent law
38
Representing Boolean Functions
Is there a smaller set of operators that can be used
to represent all Boolean functions?
Every Boolean function can be represented using the
Boolean operators + , . , and . So, we say that the
set {+ , ., } is functionally complete.

We can eliminate all the + using this entity
Then set { ., } is functionally complete.

We can eliminate all the . using this entity
Then set { +, } is functionally complete.




39
Representing Boolean Functions
Is there a smaller set of operators that can be used
to represent all Boolean functions?
Both of the sets { } and {+} are functionally complete.








x+y using NAND how?
xy using NOR
x y = x y
x + y= x + y
NAND
NOR
x = x x
xy = (x y) (x y)
x = x + x
x+y = (x + y) + (x + y)
40
Representing Boolean Functions







Exercises pp. 760
1-6
12-15
41
Combinations of Gates
Logic gates can have one or more inputs
Construct the circuit that produces the following output:
42
Combinations of Gates
Construct the circuit that produces the following output:
43
Combinations of Gates
A committee of three individuals decides issues for
an organization. Each individual votes either yes or no
for each proposal that arises. A proposal is passed if it
receives at least two yes votes. Design a circuit that
determines whether a proposal passes.

Sometimes light fixtures are controlled by more than
switch. Circuits needed to be designed so that flipping
any one of the switches for the fixture turns the light
on when it is off and turns the light off when it is on.
Design circuits that accomplish this when there are two
switches and when there are three switches.
44
Combinations of Gates (half adder)
Combinational logic circuits give us many useful
devices.
One of the simplest is the half adder, which finds
the sum of two bits.
We can gain some insight as to the construction of a
half adder by looking at its truth table
45
Combinations of Gates (half adder)
x
y
Sum
Carry
46
Combinations of Gates (full adder)
We can change our half adder into to a full adder by
including gates for processing the carry bit.
The truth table for a full adder is shown below.
47
Combinations of Gates (full adder)
48
pp. (765-766)
1-6
10-11
13-19
Exercises
49
Minimization of Circuits
Karnaugh Maps
It is a graphical approach used to simplify a Boolean
function (sum of products expansion).
Let F(A,B) be a sum-of-products Boolean expression.
To minimize F, we use a rectangular array of two rows
and two columns in which rows and columns are labeled as
follows:
Two variables
2
2
possible
Minterms.
Each square is called a cell corresponds to a minterm.
Cells are called adjacent if the minterms that they
represent differ in exactly one literal.
50
A two-variables Karnaugh Map
If a minterm is present in F(A,B), then we place a 1 in
the cell corresponding to the minterm, otherwise the
cell is left empty or place a O.
The resulting array is called K-map corresponding to
the expression
Minimization of Circuits
51
A two-variables Karnaugh Map
Find Boolean expressions that represent the function
F(A,B) which is given in the following table.

Minimization of Circuits
Dont care condition ? x
52
A Three-variables Karnaugh Map
Minimization of Circuits
Use K-Map to find a minimal expansion of the
function, and draw the circuit diagram.
53
A four-variables Karnaugh Map
Minimization of Circuits
Use K-Map to find a minimal
expansion of the function, and
draw the circuit diagram.
54
pp. (779-780)
1-2
6-7
12
Exercises