The process by which the germ layers (lamina germinativa:

ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm) develop into the

internal organs of the organism
Internal organs initiate development in humans:
within the 3
rd
to 8
th
weeks in utero
The germ layers in organogenesis differ by three
processes:
1. Folds 2. Splits 3. Condensation
Developing early during this stage in chordate
animals:
1. Neural tube (tuba neuralis)
2. Notochord (chorda dorsalis)
Vertebrate animals all differentiate from the
gastrula the same way
Vertebrates develop a neural crest (crista
neuralis) that differentiates into many
structures
(including some bones, muscles, and
components of the peripheral nervous
system)
The coelom of the body forms from a split
of the mesoderm along the somite axis
Germ layers: 1. Endoderm; 2. Mesoderm; 3. Ectoderm
HISTOGENESIS: the formation of different tissues from
undifferentiated cells
GERM LAYER (LAMINA GERMINATIVA)
A collection of cells, formed during animal
embryogenesis
Are only really pronounced in the
vertebrates
All animals more complex than sponges
(eumetazoans and agnotozoans) produce two
or three primary tissue layers (sometimes
called primary germ layers)

Animals with radial symmatry (like cnidarians)
produce:
Two called ectoderm and endoderm,
making them diploblastic
Animals with bilateral symmetry produce:
A 3
rd
layer in-between called mesoderm,
making them triploblastic
Germ layers will eventually give rise to all of
an animals tissues and organs through process
called organogenesis
Gastrulation of a diploblast:
The formation of germ layers from a (1) blastula to a
(2) gastrula. Some of the ectoderm cells (orange)
move inward forming the endoderm (red)
MESODERM
Forms in the embryos of animals more complex
than cnidarians, making them triploblastic
During gastrulation, some of the cells migrating
inward contribute to the mesoderm, an additional
layer between the endoderm and the ectoderm
This key innovation involved hundreds of millions of
years ago and led to the evolution of nearly all
large, complex animals.
The formation of a mesoderm led to the formation of a
coelom
Organs formed inside a coelom can freely move, grow,
and develop independently of the body wall while f
luid cushions protect them from shock
PRODUCTION
GERM LAYER PRODUCT
MESODERM 1. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
2. URINARY SYSTEM
3. CHORDAMESODERM
4. PARAXIAL MESODERM
5. INTERMEDIATE MESODERM
6. LATERAL PLATE MESODERM

Mesoderm forms: skeletal muscles, skeleton, dermis of the skin,
connective tissue, urogenital system, heart, blood (lymph cells),
and spleen (lien)
Endoderm Mesoderm Ectoderm
Blastocyst
Blastocyst:
Inner cell mass(embryoblast) Conceptus: Embryo, amnion, yolk sac, allantois
(Conceptus: embryo + its membranes)
Trophoblast Placenta

Ectoderm
Endode
rm
Endoderm
PRODUCTION: products produced by the endoderm
ENDODERM
one of the germ layers formed during animal
embryogenesis
cells migrating inward along archenteron from the
inner layer of the gastrula, which develop into
the endoderm
consists at first of flattened cells columnar
forms
1. the epithelial lining of the whole of the
digestive tube
(excepting: part of the mouth and pharynx and
the internal part of rectum which are lined by
involutions of the ectoderm )
ENDODERM (cont.)
Forms:
2. the lining cells of all glands (which open into
the digestive tube), including:
- liver and pancreas
- the epithelium of the auditory tube and
tympanic cavity,
- the trachea, bronchi, and air cells of the lungs,
- the urinary bladder and part of the urethra,
- that which lines the follicles of the thyroid
gland and thymus
GERM LAYER PRODUCT

ENDODERM 1. GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
2. RESPIRATORY TRACT
3. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND
ORGANS (liver, pancreas)
ECTODERM
Ectoderm is the start of a tissue that
covers the body surfaces
It emerges first and forms from the
outermost of the germ layers
In vertebrates, it has three parts:
1. External ectoderm
2. Neural crest
3. Neural tube
1. EXTERNAL ECTODERM
(1). Skin (along with the glands, hair, nail)
(2). Epithelium of the mouth and nasal cavity, salivary glands,
and glands of mouth and nasal cavity
(3). Enamel (in teeth) as a side note dentin and dental pulp are
formed from ectomesenchyme which is derived from
ectoderm (specially neural crest cells and travels with
mesenchymal cells)
(4). Epithelium of pineal and pituitary glands
(5). Lens and cornea of the eye
(6). Apical Ectodermal Ridge inducing development of the limb
buds of the embryo
(7). Sensory receptors in epidermis
2. NEURAL CREST*
(1). Pigemnt cells in the skin
(2). Ganglia of the autonomic nervous system
(3). Schwann cells
(4). Facial cartilage
(5). Spiral septum of developing heart
(6). Ciliary body of the eye
* Due to the great importance it has been
referred to as the fourth germ layer
3. NEURAL TUBE
(1). Brain (rhombencephalon,
mesencephalon, and prosencephalon)
(2). Spinal cord and motor neurons
(3). Retina
(4). Posterior pituitary
(5). Adrenal medulla
EMBRYOGENESIS
Process of cell division and cellular differentiation of the
human embryo during early prenatal development
(It spans from the moment of fertilization to the end of the
8
th
week of gestational age, where it is called a fetus)
One cell: zygote
Ovum Spermatozoon
8 cells
Compact sphere
16 cells
(morula)
(compaction) (cavitation)
Trophoblast
(secretes water)
Blastocoel
(fluid-filled cavity)
Volume
Blastula
Blastocyst
(differentiation)
Blastocyst
(differentiation)
Inner cell mass
(embryoblast)
Trophoblast
Placenta
Embryo
proper
Yolk sac Allantois
INNER CELL MASS
(EMBRYOBLAST)
TWO-LAYERED
EMBRYO
EPIBLAST
HYPOBLAST
Columnar cells
(Primitive ectoderm)
Cuboidal cells
(Primitive endoderm)
Gastrulation
(day 16 after fertilization)
3 GERM
LAYERS
ECTODERM
MESODERM
ENDODERM
CRITICAL PERIODS IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
The most critical period in the development of an
embryo or in growth of a particular tissue or organ:
DURING THE TIME OF MOST RAPID CELL DIVISION
The critical period varies in accordance with the
timing and duration of the period of increasing cell
numbers for the tissue or organ concerned
SUSCEPTIBILITY
Toxic exposures during the first two weeks following
fertilization
(2
nd
and 3
rd
weeks of gestational age)

May cause prenatal death
(but do not cause developmental defects)
The body performes a miscarriage
Subsequent toxic exposures in the embryonic period

Often cause major congenital malformation
(since the precursors of the major organ systems are
developing)
Fig. 8-14 Schematic illustration of the critical periods
During the first two weeks of development:
the embryo is usually not susceptible to tertogens.
During these predifferentiation stages: a substance either
damages
all or most of the cells of the embryo, resulting in its death,
or its damages only a few cells, allowing the embryo to recover
without developing defects.
(Red: highly sensitive periods
Yellow: stages that are less sensitive to teratogens)

Teratogens: agents that may induce congenital malformations
when the tissues and organs are developing.

CONGENITAL MALFORMATIONS
Congenital malformations:
anatomical abnormalities present at birth,
macroscopic or microscopic, on the surface or
within the body
(L. congenitus: born with)

Teratology: the study of abnormal development
and the causes of congenital malformations

Until 1940s: generally accepted that human embryos
were protected from environmental agents by:
-Fetal membrane
- mothers abdominal walls
- uterus
Gregg (1944): presented the first well-documented
evidence
that an environmental agent (rubella virus) could
produce
congenital abnormalities if present during the critical
stages of development

Lentz (1961) and MacBride (1961):
focussed attention on the role of drugs in the etiology
of human congenital abnormalities
It is now estimated that nearly 10% of human
developmental abnormalities result from the actions
of drugs, viruses, and other environmental factors
(Persaud, 1979)
About 20% of deaths in the perinatal period:
Are attributed to congenital malformations (Mac
Vicar, 1976)
Malformations are observed in about 2.7% of
newborn infants, and, during infancy, congenital
abnormalities are detected in additional 3%
(McKeown, 1976)
CONGENITAL MALFORMATIONS

1. GENETIC FACTORS
(chromosomal abnormalities or mutant genes)

2. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

(but many common congenital malformations are
caused by a number of genetic and environmental
factors acting together:
MULTIFACTORIAL INHERITANCE)
(causes)