0 valutazioniIl 0% ha trovato utile questo documento (0 voti)
66 visualizzazioni76 pagine
The production of citric acid has been based on the use of molasses and various strains of Aspergillus niger and occasionally Asp. Wenti. Recently yeasts, especially Candida spp. (including Candida quillermondi) have been used to produce the acid from sugar. Production by Penicillium is available, in practice are not used because of low productivity.
The production of citric acid has been based on the use of molasses and various strains of Aspergillus niger and occasionally Asp. Wenti. Recently yeasts, especially Candida spp. (including Candida quillermondi) have been used to produce the acid from sugar. Production by Penicillium is available, in practice are not used because of low productivity.
The production of citric acid has been based on the use of molasses and various strains of Aspergillus niger and occasionally Asp. Wenti. Recently yeasts, especially Candida spp. (including Candida quillermondi) have been used to produce the acid from sugar. Production by Penicillium is available, in practice are not used because of low productivity.
Uses in the cosmetic industry It is used in astringent lotions such as aftershave lotions because of its low pH. Citric acid is used in hair rinses and hair and wig setting fluids. Miscellaneous uses in industry In neutral or low pH conditions the acid has a strong tendency to form complexes hence it is widely used in electroplating, leather tanning, and in the removal of iron clogging the pores of the sand face in old oil wells. Citric acid has recently formed the basis of manufacture of detergents in place of phosphates, because the presence of the latter in effluents gives rise to eutrophication. Fermentation for Citric Acid Production For a long time the production of citric acid has been based on the use of molasses and various strains of Aspergillus niger and occasionally Asp. wenti. Production by Penicillium is available, in practice are not used because of low productivity. Recently yeasts, especially Candida spp. (including Candida quillermondi) have been used to produce the acid from sugar. Japanese workers described a method to produce the acid by paraffins by bacteria and yeasts. Among the bacteria were Arthrobacter paraffineus and corynebacteria; the yeasts include Candida lipolytica and Candida oleiphila. Fermentation with molasses and other sugar sources can be either surface or submerged. Fermentation with paraffins however is submerged. (a) Surface fermentation: Surface fermentation using Aspergillus niger may be done on rice bran as is the case in Japan, or in liquid solution in flat aluminium or stainless steel pans. Special strains of Asp. niger which can produce citric acid despite the high content of trace metals in rice bran are used. The citric acid is extracted from the bran by leaching and is then precipitated from the resulting solution as calcium citrate.
Fermentation for Citric Acid Production (b) Submerged fermentation: As in all other processes where citric acid is made the fermentation the fermentor is made of acid-resistant materials such as stainless steel. The carbohydrate sources are molasses decationized by ion exchange, sucrose or glucose. MgSO4, 7H 2 O and KH 2 PO 4 at about 1% and 0.05-2% respectively are added (in submerged fermentation phosphate restriction is not necessary). The pH is never allowed higher than 3.5. Copper is used at up to 500 ppm as an antagonist of the enzyme aconitase which requires iron. 1-5% of methanol, isopranol or ethanol when added to fermentations containing unpurified materials increase the yield; the yields are reduced in media with purified materials. As high aeration is deleterious to citric acid production, mechanical agitation is not necessary and air may be bubbled through. Anti-form is added. The fungus occurs as a uniform dispersal of pellets in the medium. The fermentation lasts for five to fourteen days. Extraction The broth is filtered until clear. Calcium citrate is precipitated by the addition of magnesium- free Ca(OH) 2 . Since magnesium is more soluble than calcium, some acid may be lost in the solution as magnesium citrate if magnesium is added. Calcium citrate is filtered and the filter cake is treated with sulfuric acid to precipitate the calcium. The dilute solution containing citric acid is purified by treatment with activated carbon and passing through iron exchange beds. The purified dilute acid is evaporated to yield crystals of citric acid. Further purification may be required to meet pharmaceutical stipulations. 7 The Distillery Flow Diagram: From Corn to Ethanol Plus Co-products 1 bushel of corn (56 lbs) Starch (32 lbs) Milling Fermentable sugar (36 lbs) Liquefaction Saccharification Ethanol (17.6 lbs) + DDGS (17 lbs) + Heat (7450 BTU) + CO2 (18.4 lbs)
Fermentation Recovery Dryhouse 8 Fermentation Fundamentals Key Ingredients Starch (sugar source) Enzymes (breakdown of starches) Yeast (conversion of sugar to ethanol)
Key Process Components Enzyme addition Yeast propagation Fermentation cycle Cooling system Energy CO OH H C O H C 2 5 5 6 12 6 2 2 9 Process Description Milling Cooking and mixing Milled corn and cook water a-Amylase to break down long polymer chains (starch), reduce solids Solubilization of sugars Release of bound sugars: starch is bound to protein and fiber which is released during cooking Gelatinization: absorb water so enzymes can react with molecules Liquefaction Using a-Amylase to break down starches to shorter chain molecules Saccharification and Fermentation Batch processs (~ 50-60 hours) Exothermic Glucoamylase is used to break down short chained molecules to glucose Yeast is added to convert glucose to ethanol 10 Water Balance Methanator Slurry Tank Process Water Liquefaction Backset Beer Feed Milling 11 Fermentation Slurry Tank Liquefaction Backset Beer Feed Fermenter Yeast Propagation Enzymes 12 Distillation Separate Ethanol from non-fermentable components Dehydration Azeotropic Distillation Molecular Sieves Non-Fermentables Centrifugation Evaporation Drying Process Description 13 Distillation Beer Feed Evap. Steam Steam Flow Sieve Back Pressure Rectifier Reflux Sieve Feed Vaporizer Temperature 14 Dryer, Evaporator and TO Steam Flow Centrifuge Feed Whole Stillage Thin Stillage Syrup Tank Wet Cake Pad Evaporators Dryers 15 Control Strategy Ethanol Plant-Wide Optimizer Dryer Evap TOAPC & Distill/Sieve APC Fermentation APC Slurry/Waterbalance APC Mv setpoints Plant and constraint Measurements (CV) Energy, feedstock, Product Values $ costs Separation:
- The biomass is separated by filtration - The liquid is transferred to recovery process: - Separation of citric acid from the liquid: precipitation
calcium hydroxide is added to obtain calcium citrate tetrahydrate wash the precipitate dissolve it with dilute sulfuric acid, yield citric acid and calcium sulfate precipitate bleach and crystallization anhydrous or monohydrate citric acid. Industrial Production of Citric Acid Industrial Production of Ethanol Application of Ethanol:
- Medical
- Fuel
- Industrial Ethanol Production by Anaerobic Bioprocesses Glycolysis - Microorganism: S. cerevisae for hexose Candida sp. for lactose or pentose Genetically modified E. coli
- Ethanol production is growth-associated with S. cerevisae.
- Medium requirements for high production - Carbon source: sugar cane, starch materials (e.g. corn, wheat), cellulosic materials (?!). yield: 0.51 g ethanol/g glucose. - N, P, minerals. - Anaerobic - 100g/L glucose are inhibitory for yeast. - 5% (v/v) of ethanol are inhibitory for yeast. - pH:4-6 for 30-35 o C.
Industrial Production of Citric Acid Bioreactor: batch, continuous or with cell recycle
95% conversion of sugars with a residence time of
40 h in batch reactor 21 h in continuous reactor without cell recycle 1.6 h in continuous reactor with cell cycle By-products: glycerol, acetic acid, succinic acid. Industrial Production of Citric Acid Separation:
- Distillation to obtaining 95% (w/w) of ethanol-water mixture, followed by - Molecular sieves to removing water from the mixture to get anhydrous ethanol. Ethanol Production
http://www.cleantechblog.com/uploaded_images/production_process-718492.jpg Purification of Citric Acid A typical method used for purification of citric acid from a fermentation broth involves two major purification techniques: precipitation and filtration. The following schematic displays a generic citric acid purification scheme. The scheme will be discussed in detail in the next few slides.
ffff Prec React citric acid with calcium carbonate Filter precipitate React precipitate with sulfuric acid Filter precipitate Purified Citric Acid Purification of Citric Acid The citric acid broth from the production fermenter is highly contaminated by leftover biomass, salts, sucrose, and water. First, the citric acid must be reacted with calcium carbonate to neutralize the broth and form the insoluble precipitate calcium citrate. Calcium citrate contains about 74% citric acid. The stoichiometric equation is as follows:
CaCO 3 + Citric Acid CO 2 + Calcium Citrate
Kirk 15
Contaminated Citric Acid CSTR Calcium Citrate as a precipitate plus contaminants Calcium Carbonate, CaCO 3 Purification of Citric Acid The calcium citrate is then washed, heated, and filtered to remove any number of the contaminants. Depending on the specific design of the purification scheme, filters can be placed before the first reaction with calcium carbonate, in series between the two precipitation reactions or in any other combination that works. Also, it is important to choose the best kind of filter for what is being removed. For simplicity, the filters here will remove larger contaminants first (sucrose and salts) and the smaller contaminants later.
Kirk 15
Calcium Citrate as a precipitate plus contaminants Filter Ex. Plate filter, Rotary presses, rack-and- frame presses
Calcium Citrate, biomass, water Calcium Citrate, biomass, water Purification of Citric Acid To crack the calcium citrate precipitate, sulfuric acid is needed. The temperature of this reaction should stay below 60C. The reaction will produce free citric acid and a new precipitate, calcium sulfate, which will need to be removed later. The stoichiometric coefficients for this reaction are all one.
Kirk, 15 CSTR Calcium sulfate as a precipitate, free citric acid, biomass, water Sulfuric Acid, SO 4 Purification of Citric Acid In this filter, the calcium sulfate is washed away from the citric acid and the leftover biomass is removed. Again, the contaminants that were present in the fermentation broth can be removed by additional filtration means, such as microfiltration or ultrafiltration.
Citric acid, water Calcium sulfate as a precipitate, free citric acid, biomass, water Purification of Citric Acid Further Purification Citric acid can be produced in two forms monohydrate and anhydrous. These forms may require additional purification steps to reach the desired purity.
1. Monohydrate contains one water molecule for every citric acid molecule Requires repeated crystallization until water content is approx. 7.5- 8.8%
2. Anhydrous Processed to remove all water from end product Prepare by dehydrating the monohydrate citric acid product at a temperature above 36.6C Kirk 16,17 KICgroup 1
Citric Acid Lime/Acid Fermentation Precipitation Acidification Crystallization Lime Calcium Citrate Sugars Residue Citric Acid Sulfuric Acid Water Gypsum Purification Conclusion Once the product has been brought to the desired purity, it would be sent to packaging and distribution.
In summary, there are many different methods and types of equipment that make up a purification scheme. Some of the more common types or purification were discussed in the first half of this tutorial. The second half of the tutorial dealt with a specific citric acid purification scheme that utilizes precipitation and filtration to recover free citric acid from a contaminated fermentation broth.
Citric Acid Purification INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL PRODUCTION Ethanol (ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol) is a clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic, agreeable odor.
In dilute aqueous solution, it has a somewhat sweet flavor, but in more concentrated solutions it has a burning taste.
Ethanol, the word, alcohol derives from Arabic al- kuhul, which denotes a fine powder of antimony used as an eye makeup. Alcohol originally referred to any fine powder, but medieval alchemists later applied the term to the refined products of distillation, and this led to the current usage. Uses of Ethanol (i) Use as a chemical feed stock: In the chemical industry, ethanol is an intermediate in many chemical processes because of its great reactivity as shown above. It is thus a very important chemical feed stock. (ii) Solvent use: Ethanol is widely used in industry as a solvent for dyes, oils, waxes, explosives, cosmetics etc. (iii) General utility: Alcohol is used as a disinfectant in hospitals, for cleaning and lighting in the home, and in the laboratory second only to water as a solvent. (iv) Fuel: Ethanol is mixed with petrol or gasoline up to 10% and known as gasohol and used in automobiles.
Denatured Alcohol All over the world and even in ancient times, governments have derived revenue from potable alcohol. For this reason when alcohol is used in large quantities it is denatured or rendered unpleasant to drink. The base of denatured alcohol is usually 95% alcohol with 5% water; for domestic burning or hospital use denatured alcohol is dispended as methylated spirit, which contains a 10% solution of methanol, pyridine and coloring material. For industrial purpose methanol is used as the denaturant. In the United States alcohol may be completely denatured (C.D.A. completely denatured alcohol) when it cannot be used orally because of a foul taste or four smelling additives. It may be specially denatured (S.D.A. specially denatured alcohol) when it can still be used for special purposes such as vinegar manufacture without being suitable for consumption. Ethanol is a clean-burning, high- octane fuel that is produced from renewable sources.
At its most basic, ethanol is grain alcohol, produced from crops such as corn. A bushel of corn weighs 56 pounds and will produce at least 2.8 gallons of ethanol , 17 pounds of distillers grain & 18 Pounds of CO 2 In 2005, 97 ethanol plants in 21 states produced a record 3.904 billion gallons of ethanol Ethanol can be made by a dry mill process or a wet mill process.
Most of the ethanol in the U.S. is made using the dry mill method. In the dry mill process, the starch portion of the corn is fermented into sugar then distilled into alcohol. The major steps in the dry mill process are:
1. Milling. The feedstock passes through a hammer mill which grinds it into a fine powder called meal.
2. Liquefaction. The meal is mixed with water and alpha-amylase, then passed through cookers where the starch is liquefied. Heat is applied at this stage to enable liquefaction. Cookers with a high temperature stage (120-150 degrees Celsius) and a lower temperature holding period (95 degrees Celsius) are used. High temperatures reduce bacteria levels in the mash. 3. Saccharification. The mash from the cookers is cooled and the secondary enzyme (gluco-amylase) is added to convert the liquefied starch to fermentable sugars (dextrose).
4. Fermentation. Yeast is added to the mash to ferment the sugars to ethanol and carbon dioxide. Using a continuous process, the fermenting mash is allowed to flow through several fermenters until it is fully fermented and leaves the final tank. In a batch process, the mash stays in one fermenter for about 48 hours before the distillation process is started. 5. Distillation. The fermented mash, now called beer, contains about 10% alcohol plus all the non-fermentable solids from the corn and yeast cells. The mash is pumped to the continuous flow, multi- column distillation system where the alcohol is removed from the solids and the water. The alcohol leaves the top of the final column at about 96% strength, and the residue mash, called stillage, is transferred from the base of the column to the co-product processing area.
6. Dehydration. The alcohol from the top of the column passes through a dehydration system where the remaining water will be removed. Most ethanol plants use a molecular sieve to capture the last bit of water in the ethanol. The alcohol product at this stage is called anhydrous ethanol (pure, without water) and is approximately 200 proof. Manufacture of Ethanol Ethanol may be produced by either synthetic chemical method or by fermentation. Fermentation was until about 1930 the main means of alcohol production. In 1939, for example 75% of the ethanol produced in the US was by fermentation, in 1968 over 90% was made by synthesis from ethylene. Due to the increase in price of crude petroleum, the source of ethylene used for alcohol production, attention has turned worldwide to the production of alcohol by fermentation. Fermentation alcohol has the potential to replace two important needs currently satisfied by petroleum, namely the provision of fuel and that of feedstock in the chemical industry. The production of gasohol (gasoline alcohol blend) appears to have received more attention than alcohol use as a feed stock. Nevertheless, the latter will also surely assume more importance if petroleum price continues to ride.
Manufacture of Ethanol Governments the world over have set up programs designed to conserve petroleum and to seek other energy sources. One of the most widely publicized programs designed to utilize a new source of energy is the Brazilian National Ethanol Program. Set-up in 1975, the first phase of this program aims at extending gasoline by blending it with ethanol to the extent of 20% by volume. The United States government also introduced the gasoline programme based on corn fermentation in 1980 following the embargo on grain sales to the then Soviet Union.
Substrates The substrate used will vary among countries. In Brazil sugar cane, already widely grown in the country, is the major source of fermentation alcohol, while it is planned to use cassava and sweet sorghum. In the United States enormous quantities of corn and other cereals are grown and these are the obvious substrates. Cassava grows in many tropical countries and since it is high yielding it is an important source in tropical countries where sugar cane is not grown. It is recognized that two important conditions must be met before fermentation alcohol can play a major role in the economy either as gasohol or as a chemical feedstock. First, the production of the crop to be used must be available to produce the crop without extensive and excessive deforestation. Secondly, the substrate should not compete with human food. Fermentation The sterilized fermentable sugars are pumped or allowed to flow by gravity into fermentation tanks and yeast is inoculated or pitched in at a rate of 7-15 x 10 6
yeast cells/ml, usually collected from a previous process. These broths are inoculated with up to 5% (v/v) of thick yeast broth. Although yeast is re-used there is still a need for regular inocula. In general the inocula are made of selected alcohol-tolerant yeast strains usually Sacch. cerevisiae grown aerobically with agitation and in a molasses base. Progressively larger volumes of culture may be developed before the desired volume is attained. When the nitrogen content of the medium is insufficient nitrogen is added usually in the form of an ammonium salt. As in all alcohol fermentations the heat released must be reduced by cooling and temperatures are generally not permitted to exceed 35-37C. The pH is usually in the range 4.5-4.7, when the buffering capacity of the medium is high. Higher pH values tend to lead to higher glycerol formation. When the buffering capacity is lower, the initial pH is 5.5 but this usually falls to about 3.5. During the fermentation contaminations can have Distillation After fermentation the fermented liquor or beer contains alcohol as well as low boiling point volatile compounds such as acetaldeydes, esters and the higher boiling, fusel oils. The alcohol is obtained by several operations. First, steam is passed through the beer which is said to be steam- stripped. The result is a dilute alcohol solution which still contains part of the undesirable volatile compounds. Secondly, the dilute alcohol solution is passed into the center of a multi-plate aldehyde column in which the following fractions are separated: esters and aldehydes, fusel oil, water, and an ethanol solution containing about 25% ethanol. Thirdly, the dilute alcohol solution is passed into a rectifying column where a constant boiling mixture, an azeotrope, distils off at 95.6% alcohol concentration. Distillation To obtain 200 proof alcohol, such as is used in gasohol blending, the 96.58% alcohol is obtained by azeotropic distillation. The principle of this method is to add an organic solvent which will form a ternary (three-membered) azeotrope with most of the water, but with only a small proportion of the alcohol. Benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and cyclohezane may be used, but in practice, benzene is used. Azeotropes usually have lower boiling point than their individual components and that of benzene-ethanol-water is 64.6C. On condensation, it separates into two layers. The upper layer, which has about 84% of the condensate, has the following percentage composition: benzene 85%, ethanol 18%, water 1%. The heavier, lower portion, constituting 16% of the condensate, has the following composition: benzene 11%, ethanol 53%, and water 36%. Distillation In practice, the condensate is not allowed to separate out, but the arrangement of plates within the columns enable separation of the alcohol. Four columns are usually used. The first and second columns remove aldehydes and fusel oils, respectively, while the last two towers are for the concentration of the alcohol. A flow diagram of conventional absolute alcohol production from molasses is given in Fig. 20.4 Distillation Ethanol Dry-Grind Grind bushel of corn (56 lb.), add water, make mash, cook to kill bacteria, expose starch Add enzymes for flow & to convert starch to sugar Introduce Yeasts in Batch Fermenters---- produce beer- --- distill the ethanol Products: ethanol (2.75 gal.) requires heat to distill DDGS- (18 lbs.) generally requires drying CO2-- ( 18 lbs. ) food grade 150 bushel corn yields 413 gallons of ethanol per acre, 2700 pounds of DDGS
Corn Corn Dry-Milling Process Overview Alpha-amylase enzyme CO2 Yeast and Gluco-amylase enzyme Whole Stillage Thin Stillage Coarse Solids Feed Industry Co-products (Source: Kelly Davis, Chippewa Valley Ethanol Company) Corn Cleaning Hammermill Mix Slurry Liquefaction Cooker Centrifuge Evaporator Fermentation Dist illat ion Ethyl Alcohol Conditioned Distillers Solubles Distillers Dried Grains with Solubles Distillers Wet Grains Rotary Dryer 7. Denaturing. Ethanol that will be used for fuel must be denatured, or made unfit for human consumption, with a small amount of gasoline (2-5%). This is done at the ethanol plant.
8. Co-Products. There are two main co-products created in the production of ethanol: distillers grain and carbon dioxide. Distillers grain, used wet or dry, is a highly nutritious livestock feed. Carbon dioxide is given off in great quantities during fermentation and many ethanol plants collect, compress, and sell it for use in other industries. Distillers grain can be fed to livestock wet or dry. Dried distillers grain (DDG) is the most common variety. Drying the distillers grain increases its shelf life and improves its ability to be transported over longer distances. If a consistent nearby market can be secured, ethanol producers can supply the feed as wet distillers grain (WDG). The wet form is not as easily transportable, but the cost of drying the product is removed. Dried distillers grain with solubles (DDGS) is the form available to the feed industry. The liquid that is separated from the mash during the distilling process is partially dehydrated into a syrup, then added back onto the dried distillers grain to create DDGS.
DDGS is a high quality feedstuff ration for dairy cattle, beef cattle, swine, poultry, and aquaculture. The feed is an economical partial replacement for corn, soybean meal, and dicalcium phosphate in livestock and poultry feeds. Historically, over 85% of DDGS has been fed to dairy and beef cattle, and DDGS continues to be an excellent, economical feed ingredient for use in ruminant diets. The personal care products industry is one of the largest users of industrial ethanol, or ethyl alcohol.
Check the labels hairspray, mouthwash, aftershave, cologne, and perfume all contain large amounts of alcohol by volume. Ethanol is also used in many deodorants, lotions, hand sanitizers, soaps, and shampoos. Recovery of Ethanol by Distillation process Ethanol was recovered by simple distillation method. Sugarcane Source of Green Energy JUICE BAGASSE LEAVES & TOPS SUGAR CO-GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY Ethanol Flowsheet of Sugar and Ethanol Production J u i c e
Ethanol from Molasses and Juice
MASH JUICE FOR SUGAR FACTORY SUGAR ETHANOL FROM SUGARS SUGARCANE MILLING FERMENTATION DISTILLATION MOLASSES JUICE FOR ETHANOL ETHANOL FROM MOLASSES ETHANOL DISTILLERY Sugars = Suc + Glu + Fru Milling Diagram Usina Santo Antonio S. A. - Fluxograma de Processo - Setor de moendas gua de embebio Tanque Pulmo Peneira Rotativa Trocador de calor regenerativo Tanque de cido Fosfrico Caldo clarificado para destilaria Bagacilho para lodo dos decantadores Circuito acar Circuito lcool Eletro-Im Vinhaa (Entrada) Vinhaa (Sada) Caldo clarificado do decantador de lcool Caldo do circuito lcool para os trocadores de calor Legenda Caldo de cana guas industriais Bagao Produtos qumicos Bagao para as caldeiras Caldo do circuito acar para a sulfitao Cana gua de lavagemde cana Picador 01 Picador 02 Esteira de cana picada Mesa 18 - cana inteira Bagao da peneira Desfribador Rolo alimentador Espalhador FERMENTATION PROCESS The medium is inoculated with a suspension of conidia of Penicillium chrysogenum. The medium is constantly aerated and agitated, and the mould grows throughout as pellets. After about seven days, growth is complete, the pH rises to 8.0 or above, and penicillin production ceases
STAGES IN DOWNSTREAM PROCESSING Removal of cells
The first step in product recovery is the separation of whole cells and other insoluble ingredients from the culture broth by technique such as filtration and centrifugation.
ISOLATION OF BENZYL PENICILLIN
The PH is adjusted to 2-2.5 with the help of phosphoric or sulphuric acids. In aqueous solution at low PH values there is a partition coefficient in favor of certain organic solvents such as butyl acetate. This step has to be carried out quickly for penicillin is very unstable at low PH values. Antibiotic is then extracted back into an aqueous buffer at a PH of 7.5, the partition coefficient now being strongly in favor of the aqueous phase. The resulting aqueous solution is again acidified & re-extracted with an organic solvent. These shifts between the water and solvent help in the purification of penicillin.
The treatment of the crude penicillin extract varies according to the objective, but involves the formation of an appropriate penicillin salt. The solvent extract recovered in the previous stage is carefully extracted back with aqueous sodium hydroxide. This is followed by charcoal treatment to eliminate pyrogens and by sterilization. Pure metal salts of penicillin can be safely sterilized by dry heat, if desired. Thereafter, the aqueous solution of penicillin is subjected to crystallization.
FURTHER PROCESSING For parental use, the antibiotic is packed in sterile vials as a powder or suspension. For oral use, it is tabletted usually now with a film coating. Searching tests (ex: for purity, potency) are performed on the appreciable number of random samples of the finished product. It must satisfy fully all the strict government standards before being marketed The main stages of Penicillin production are:
PRODUCTION OF PENICILLIN V Phenoxy methyl penicillin Addition of different Acyl groups to the medium. Phenoxyacetic acid as precursor instead of phenyl acetic acid.
When penicillin was first made at the end of the second world war using the fungus Penicilium notatum, the process made 1 mg dm -3 . Today, using a different species (P. chrysogenum) and a better extraction procedures the yield is 50 g dm -3 . There is a constant search to improve the yield.
Antibiotics can be selectively toxic by targeting such features as the bacterial cell wall, 70S ribosomes, and enzymes that are specific to bacteria.
In this way the human eukaryotic cells are unaffected. For example: penicillin, ampicillin, amoxycillin, methicillin Inhibits enzymes involved in synthesis of peptidoglycan for bacterial cell wall, causing cell lysis. Bacteriocidal Narrow spectrum- little effect on Gram negative cells. Downstream processing is relatively easy since penicillin is secreted into the medium (to kill other cells), so there is no need to break open the fungal cells.
However, the product needs to be very pure, since it being used as a therapeutic medical drug, so it is dissolved and then precipitated as a potassium salt to separate it from other substances in the medium. The resulting penicillin (called penicillin G) can be chemically and enzymatically modified to make a variety of penicillins with slightly different properties.
These semi-synthetic penicillins include penicillin V, penicillin O, ampicillin and amoxycillin. 1. What is the Carbon source? 2. What is the nitrogen source? 3. What is the energy source? 4. Is the fermentation aerobic or anaerobic? 5. What is the optimum temperature? 6. Is penicillin a primary or secondary metabolite? 7. What volume fermenter is used? 8. Why isn't a larger fermenter used? 9. When is penicillin produced? 10. How long can it be produced for? 11. What was the first fungus known to produce penicillin? 12. What species produces about 60mg/dm3 of penicillin? 13. How did scientists improve the yield still further? 14. What is the substrate? 15. Why is batch culture used? 16. What are the processes involved in down-stream processing? a) b) c) 17. Why can't penicillin be taken orally? 18. Name the form of penicillin which can be taken orally. 19. How does Penicillin kill bacteria? 20. Why are Gram negative bacteria not killed by penicillin? lactose yeast glucose aerobic 25 - 27C secondary 40 200 dm 3 To difficult to aerate 40 hours after main increase in fungal mass 140 hours (180 40 hours) Penicillin notatum Penicillin chrysogenum Genetic modification Corn steep liquor Secondary metabolite Filtration of liquid Extraction from filtrate by counter current of butylacetate Precipitation by potassium salts Destroyed by stomach acid Penicillin V, ampicillin Stops production of cell wall Different cell wall