LEARNING

Trial Error Theory

Classical Conditioning
Operand Conditioning
Social Learning
Cognitive Theory
Learning
Relatively permanent change in Behavior arising
out of experience
Involves change - New Behavior & old behavior
Experience is necessary
Modification and some stabilization of behavior
When certain stage of learning is reached,
corresponding changes behavior takes place


Learning
Not just limited to education
Process learning to feel, act, interests, habits,
have ability , know about sth, to know how to
do sth, not to do th
Process by which behavior is originated-
changed Kinsely
Modification in every behavior, to meet
environmental requirements (Gardon Murphy
Acquisition of new behavior, strengthening or
weakening of old behavior Henry Smith
Maturity
Do all changes in behavior result of learning?
Some changes are due to result of maturity.
Maturity is Gradual unfolding of genetic code &
ripening of behavior hidden in cells- certain way
of feeling, acting , speech etc
Inner born perceptions, imprints of behavior
Forces that Influence learning
Physical /
Mental Health
Mentally
disturbed
Intelligence
Understanding ,
interest ,
attitudes,
aptitude
Level of aspiration
Goals Persistence
Readiness will
Subject Matter
Formal- Informal
Direct- Indirect
Activity based
Student centered
Methodology
Link to past
Unknown areas
Use of senses
Gateway to
Knowledge
Feedback
Revision
Teacher
Know &
Experience
Discipline
climate
Seating
Calm,
control
Distraction
Cooperation
Competition
Creativity
Materials
Learner Learning Exp Environment
Trial & Error
All behavior is the result of trial and
error experimentation
Thorndike (1874 - 1949)

Trial Error
Edward Thorndike
All behavior is the result of trial thru Stimulus &
response
Mechanical Connection of responses to stimuli
Responses that bring reward are learned; responses
that do not bring rewards are not !!.
Trial & Error
He stated, "When particular stimulus-response
sequences are followed by pleasure, those
responses tend to be stamped in'; responses
followed by pain tend to be stamped out'."
Learning occurs incrementally and on the basis
of trial &error
Examples
Sensory- motor skills, are achieved through trial-
and-error.
To walk, to swim, or to ride a bicycle . At the
beginning, we make wrong movements and
commit errors. A series of practice trials, errors
are reduced and responses are mastered.
Trial & Error
Placing a hungry cat into the puzzle box box
Observed its behavior
It tried to escape to obtain some food
For the most part, he noticed that the cats obtained the food
only by "trial-and-error.
On a successive attempt, the mere trial-and-error behavior
decreased and the cat would escape quickly.
Thorndike studied several cats, and plotted the time it took for
them to escape from the puzzle box on successive trials.
These learning curves did not suddenly improve, but rather the
amount of time the animal spent in the box gradually shortened.
Animal did not merely realize what it had to do
to escape, but the connection between the
animal's situation and the response that
gradually freed him was stamped in.
With these observations, Thorndike suggested
that certain stimuli and responses become
connected or dissociated from each other
according to his law of effect.

Trial & Error
Trial Error: Rat Exp: Elements
Drive Hunger
Goal- To get food
Block- Closed Dorr
Random Movement-
Trial
Chance Success
Selection of Correct
move
Fixation of correct move

Selection: Stamp old
behavior in & Stamp in new
behavior
Connection- between
senses, impulses,
impressions and actions
Increase behavior
Incremental- learning is not
sudden: No of trials- not a
huge jumps does not strike
Direct- Not by reason,
thinking, mental process

Trial & Error
The "law of effect" : stated that when a connection between a stimulus and
response is positively rewarded it will be strengthened and when it is
negatively rewarded it will be weakened. Thorndike later revised this "law"
when he found that negative reward, (punishment) did not necessarily weaken
bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily
motivate performance.

The "law of exercise: More S-R (stimulus response) bond is practiced the
stronger it will become. As with the law of effect, the law of exercise also had
to be updated when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not
necessarily enhance performance.

The "law of readiness" : because of the structure of the nervous system,
certain conduction units, in a given situation, are more predisposed to
conduct than others. (Some r ready , others r not)
Neural bond would be established between the stimulus and response when
the response was positive. Learning takes place when the bonds are formed
into patterns of behavior

Law of Readiness- Inner state of mind- force
Law of Effect: S + R = Satisfaction Increases
Law of Exercise
Use : If you connect - Increases
Disuse: If you do not connect weakens
Multiple responses: In a situation we try different
responses before chancing upon best
Analogy or repetition: Response depends on past

Trial Error
Classical Conditioning Exp
Ivan Pavlov : All learning is a process of association
between stimulus and response
Acquisition of new behavior is possible through the
Successful linking of UCS & CS
Behavior is nothing but an association between
stimulus and response


Classical Conditioning Exp
US: Any object that evokes natural response
UR: A response which is automatic, not learned
reflex response; it is unlearned and built-in to the
nervous system
CS: Any object to which response is taught Ex
Bell, or advertisement
CR : A response which is not automatic, learned
response
Ex: Meat is unconditional stimulus
Salivating by dog is unconditional response

,
Pavlovs Experiment: Phase 1
Food (US):
salivation (UR)
Reflexive response
Rings Bell(CS) :
No response
Pavlovs Experiment: Phase 2
CS is repeatedly paired with the US
Bell is sounded before the food is presented
Acquisition of New behavior or response thru
chaining CS with UCS
Classical Conditioning Exp
Pavlovs Experiment: Phase 3
Eventually, the CS elicits a new CR
Classical conditioning is complete when hearing the
bell by itself causes salivation
Classical Conditioning
Generalization: Tendency to exhibit a conditioned
response to any stimuli similar to original CS Any
sound causes(Initially, Child thinks all women as
mother. One dog bite, we fear all dogs)
Stimulus Discrimination: Ability to exhibit different
responses to different CS. (like Medicines )
Dog learns to respond to the bell rung by person
who gives food than others
Child ability to discriminate mothers voice from all
other women.
Fear of only that dog that bit you




Classical Conditioning
Extinction : Systematic stopping of a behavior
which is acquired by delinking the conditional
stimulus
Extincti
on
Recover
y
Extinction
Extinction: If you stop pairing the bell with the
food, salivation will eventually cease in response
to the bell.
Gradual declining of behavior or conditioned
response thru disassociation of UCS (Purchase
response to advt like coke declines)
Weakened if the bell (conditioned stimulus) is
regularly presented without the food (unconditioned
stimulus). This process is called extinction.
Helps in stopping smoking or drinking or bad
behaviors
Classical Conditioning
Spontaneous recovery:
Reappear of conditioned behavior with greater
magnitude after a longtime (Smoking habit can
reappear)
Extinguished responses can be "recovered" after
an elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if
the dog is not presented with food.
Behaviorist
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my
own specified world to bring them up in and I'll
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to
become any type of specialist I might selectdoctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant, chief, and yes, even beggar-man
and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies,
abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. (Watson,
1924, p. 104)
This reflects the behaviorist viewpoint that not only can
behavior be explained by examining the environment, but
that by changing the environment the person's behavior
can be altered

Operand conditioning
Skinner
Behavior is the result of consequences

(1904 - 1990)


Operant Conditioning: Skinner Box
Green Button: Pressing green button gives meat.
Red Button: Pressing Red leads to shock
Behavior Consequence
Increases or
Decreases
Operant Conditioning
a form of learning in which the consequences of
behavior determine weather the behavior will
occur or do not occur
behavior (voluntary ) operating on the
environment

Operand Conditioning




Behavior leads to Positive Outcome Behavior
Strengthened

Behavior leads to Negative Outcome Behavior
Weakened
1) Any act that produces satisfaction is more likely
to recur;
2) Any act that produces discomfort or pain is less
likely recur.
Operant Conditioning
Behavior is the result of Positive Reinforcement or rewards, negative
reinforcement and punishments
Positive reinforcement or Rewards:
Presenting something that is pleasant.
Responses that are rewarded are likely to be repeated. (Good grades
reinforce careful study.)
Negative Reinforcement: With drawing something that is
unpleasant. Ex: medicines or probation
Responses that allow escape from painful or undesirable situations
are likely to be repeated.
Punishment: Presenting something unpleasant
Responses that bring painful or undesirable consequences will be
suppressed,
but may reappear if reinforcement contingencies change.
(Penalizing late students by withdrawing privileges should stop their
lateness.)

Operant Conditioning
More intense the Punishment more effective?
Encouraging
Discouraging

Increases
Behavior Decreases behavior

Something
Pleasant
Positive

Present ing
Rewards or
positive
Reinforcement
Remove or withdraw



Something
Negative
Unpleasant

Present ing
painful
Punishment
Remove negative
Negative
Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
Conditions for Operant Conditioning
1. Immediate: Manager grants increment
immediately after the appraisal period.
2. only when : A manager who praises the
employees only when they behave appropriately
A manager/teacher who laughs at / encourages
inappropriate behavior of employees/students
3. Every time: Punishments or rewards are
effective only if they follow immediately, every
time????

Three Essential Conditions for Operant
Conditioning
A reinforce must follow the response. To be
most effective, the reinforcer should occur
immediately after the response. The closer it
occurs to the response the more effective it will
be to the students.
The reinforcer must be presented only when the
response has occurred
The reinforcer should never occur when the
response does not occur.




Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed interval schedule: Rewards are given at
uniform time intervals. Ex: Monthly salary, yearly
bonus

Variable interval schedule: Rewards are given at
unequal time periods I.e when ever good behavior is
exhibited incentive for good work

Continuous reinforcement: Every time good behavior
is exhibited, reward is givenchildren chocolates
Schedules of Reinforcement
236
Fixed-ratio
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Interval Schedules: the target response is reinforced
after a fixed amount of time has passed 1 week? since the
last reinforcement.

Fixed Ratio Schedules: a fixed number of correct
responses must like no of credit cards sold occur before
reinforcement may recur.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Interval Schedules: similar to fixed
interval schedules, but the amount of time that
must pass between reinforcement varies
Variable Ratio Schedules: the number of correct
repetitions of the correct response for
reinforcement varies.

Applied Behavioral Analysis
Increasing Desirable Behaviors
.
1. Choose effective
reinforcers.


4. Consider contracting.

2. Make reinforces
contingent and timely.
5. Use negative
reinforcement
effectively.
3. Select the BEST
reinforcement schedule.
Extra incentives for software Professionals
Effective Punishment
Should be swift, consistent, appropriately
aversive
Challenges
Increase aggressive behaviors
Fear the person who punishes
Most effective when combined with
reinforcement for desired behavior
Social Learning Theory
or observation learning
Albert Bandura
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D
z_8RoyNs60
Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory focuses on the learning that
occurs within a social context.
Learning occurs thru modeling, observation by
which behavior is initiated, regulate and sustain
behavior
It considers that people learn from one another:
Observes How others Act
Acquires Mental picture act with its rewards
&Punishments Role play : Mechanical imitation
Attention, Retention, reproduction and Modelling


four conditions
1. Attention: person must first pay attention to the model.
2. Retention: the observer must be able to remember the
behavior that has been observed. One way of increasing this is
using the technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction: Ability to replicate the behavior. This
means that the observer has to be able to replicate the action,
which could be a problem with a learner who is not ready
developmentally. For example, little children have difficulty
doing complex physical motion.
4. Motivation: the final necessary ingredient for modeling to
occur is motivation, learners must want to demonstrate what
they have learned. since these four conditions vary among
individuals, different people will reproduce the same behavior
differently.

Social Learning Theory
1. learning through observation and the actual imitation of
what has been learned.
2. Attention is a critical factor in learning.
3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form
expectations about the consequences that future behaviors
are likely to bring. They expect certain behaviors to bring
reinforcements and others to bring punishment.
4. Reciprocal causation: three variables, the person, the
behavior, and the environment can have an influence on each
other.
5. Modeling: There are different types of models.
live model, and actual person demonstrating the behavior.
symbolic model, which can be a person or action portrayed in
some other medium, , such as television, videotape, computer
programs

Social learning
Factors in the development of self efficacy:
Self Efficacy: Belief in ones capabilities to organize and
execute any course of action.
Previous successes and failures
Messages received from others
successes and failures of others
Joy of activities: individuals typically choose
activities they feel they will be successful in doing.
Effort and persistence: individuals will tend to put
more effort end activities and behaviors they
consider to be successful in achieving.
Learning and achievement: students with high self-
efficacy tend to be better students and achieve more.



Social learning
Teachers and parents must model appropriate
behaviors and take care that they do not model
inappropriate behaviors.
Teachers should expose students to a variety of
other models.
Students must believe that they are capable of
accomplishing school tasks.
Thus it is very important to develop a sense of
self-efficacy for students.

Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget
Cognitive Development
Piaget believed that cognitive
development occurs through a sequence
of successive qualitative changes in
cognitive structures.

49
Cognitive Development
Piagets Four Stages:

Sensorimotor Stage (birth - 2 yrs):
actions become more intentional and integrated into
patterns, there is an increased awareness of self and
surroundings.
Preoperational Thought Stage (2 - 7yrs):
development of language and conceptual thought
occurs.
Concrete Operations Stage (7-11yrs):
increased ability to apply logical thought to concrete
problems, thinking is still primarily related to
immediate experience.
Formal Operations Stage (11yrs on):
ability to apply logic to a variety of problems; higher
order thinking occurs.


Instructional Implications:
1. There should be plenty of opportunity for
assimilation and accommodation in order for
students to proceed from one stage to the next.
2. The richer the experience, the more elaborate
the cognitive structure development.
3. Materials and activities should be geared for
the appropriate level of cognitive development.

The restaurant will run television adverts
showing all the delicious food available, and will
finish with an image of the restaurant logo.
You have a meal at a fast food restaurant that
causes food poisoning. The next time you see a
sign for that restaurant, you feel nauseous
You eat a new food and then get sick because of
the flu. However, you develop a dislike for the
food and feel nauseated whenever you smell it.

Your close friend always uses the same
shampoo. Soon, the smell of that shampoo
makes you feel happy.
The nurse says Now this wont hurt a bit just
before stabbing you with a needle. The next
time you hear This wont hurt you cringe in
fear.
The person of your dreams uses certain brand
of fragrant , the moment you come across such
fragrance, you begin to see the person of your
dreams in the mind.

The door to your house squeaks loudly when
you open it. Soon, your dog begins wagging its
tail when the door squeaks.

Your father gives you a credit card at the end of
your first year in college because you did so well.
As a result, your grades continue to get better in
your second year.