The crust is the outer layer of cooled rock.

It is not one single piece but is

broken into several slabs of varying sizes called plates.
Plates float like rafts on the molten magma in the mantle. They move due to
convection currents in the mantle.
There are two types of crust:
Continental crust:
25 100 km thick
it is older
( most over 1500 million years old)
it is lighter (less dense)
it cannot sink
it cannot be renewed or destroyed
Oceaninc Crust:
5 10 km thick
it is newer (most less than 200 million years old)
it is heavier (denser)
it can sink
it can be renewed and destroyed
1. Destructive margins
Subduction
Collision

2. Constructive margins
3. Conservative margins
Subduction zone
Ocean trench
What do you notice about the distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes?
Why do you think this is?
plate
boundary
direction the
plate is moving
The Earths plates
What makes the plates
move in different
directions?
Convection currents
in the mantle
How are the earths plates moving?
Types of plate movement
Magma
chamber
Vent
Secondary
cone
Crater
Ash and
gas
Volcanic
bombs
1
2
3
4
5
6
1. At constructive plate margins
convection currents in the
mantle drag the plates apart.
Magma rises to fill the gap and
hardens to form a ridge of new
land e.g. the mid- Atlantic ridge.

In places the ridge of new land
breaks the surface of the sea to
form volcanic islands e.g.
Iceland.
2. At destructive (subduction) margins, the oceanic crust sinks
below the continental crust. As it sinks the oceanic crust melts in
the subduction zone. The newly formed magma rises under
pressure through the continental crust to form a volcano.
3. Some volcanoes form
away from plate
boundaries over fixed
hot spots in the mantle.
E.g. Hawaii
Made up of layers of
ash and lava.
Steep sided
Thick lava (acid type).
Doesnt flow far before
cooling and setting.
Made up of only of
layers of lava

Gentle sides
Thin, runny lava
(basic type). Flows
a long way before
cooling and setting
Make sure you can compare a composite and a shield volcano
e.g. Mt St Helens or
Mt Pinatubo
e.g. Kilauea
Lava flow
Pyroclastic flow
Lahar
Ash cloud
Lava flow
River of molten rock
Lahar Very fast mudflow (ash/water)
Pyroclastic flow
Cloud of extremely
hot gas and ash flowing
down the volcano side
Ash cloud /
Ash fall
Millions of tonnes of ash falls from
ash cloud and buries buildings,
area is uninhabitable
Climate change
Ash reflects sunlight,
climate cooler
Example case study
Location -
Plate boundary -
Date -
USA
Destructive . Juan de Fuca /
N. American plates
18th May 1980
Details of the eruption
An earthquake measuring 5.1 on the Richter scale caused a landslide
on the NE side of the mountain. This led to a sideways blast.
top 400m of volcano blown off
new crater 2km wide
glacier melted & mixed with ash to
form lahar
sideways blast & pyroclastic flow
deposited tonnes of ash
ash cloud turned day to night
largest landslide ever recorded
trees flattened up to 32km away
61 deaths from poisonous gases
buildings buried, villages destroyed
profit from volcano souvenirs
all wildlife destroyed
bridges collapsed, roads blocked
logging business boomed clearing
fallen trees
Immediate Responses Longer term responses
evacuation within 8km of
volcano (before eruption)
helicopters used to search
for survivors
emergency treatment for
survivors
clear ash to get traffic flowing
2 million face masks sent to
area for protection from ash
buildings and bridges
needed rebuilding
removal of fallen trees
roads rebuilt
roads rebuilt
Positive Impacts
Negative Impacts
Eventually the soil will
become more fertile.
Tourism has revived
Area designated a
national monument in 1982.
$1.4 million spent to
transform area to cater for
3 million visitors per year.
Benefits to the logging
industry
Loss of lives
Loss of livelihoods and
property
Huge cost of repairs and
rebuilding programme
Case study
Location:
Date:
Plate boundary:
THE
PHILIPPINES
9
TH
JUNE, 1991
DESTRUCTIVE
Philippines and Eurasian
plates
Details of the Eruption
Ash cloud rose 22 miles
into the air, mushrooming
out to 300 miles.
Pyroclastic flows
roared down the
mountainside.
Primary effects
pyroclastic flow deposited 600m of ash
ash fall from ash cloud covered a huge area
ash and rain created lahars
Secondary effects
weight of ash caused buildings to collapse including:
200,000 homes
hospitals
schools
factories

Power supplies cut off for 3 weeks
Water supplies contaminated
Harvests ruined.
Over a million farm animals died of starvation
Disease spread
Global cooling
Approx 700 deaths - 6 from initial eruption, 70 from
lahars, 600 from disease.
The USGS Volcano Hazards Program monitors volcanoes for signs of
unrest (activity). They analyze and interpret the data collected from a
networks of instruments. The data and an understanding of what the data
has meant in the past is crucial for determining when a volcano might
erupt.


Monitoring and
predicting
volcanoes
How can we monitor the activity of volcanoes in order to predict eruptions
Key Questions:
What are supervolcanoes?
How do they differ from
normal volcanoes:

location

size

shape

formation

effects
A supervolcano is a volcano capable of producing a volcanic
eruption with an ejected volume greater than 1,000 km3
(240 cu mi). This is thousands of times larger than most
historic volcanic eruptions.

Supervolcanoes can occur when magma in the Earth rises into the crust from
a hotspot but is unable to break through the crust. Pressure builds in a large and
growing magma pool until the crust is unable to contain the pressure. They can also
form at convergent plate boundaries (for example, Toba) and continental hotspot
locations (for example, Yellowstone).
An eruption of Yellowstone
supervolcano could result in:

1,000 km of material ejected

10,000km of land destroyed

87,000 people killed

15cm of ash would cover buildings
within 1,000km radius

1 in 3 people affected would die

the ash would affect transport ,
electricity, water and farming

Lahars are a probability

The UK would await the arrival of
ash 5 days later

Global climates would change, crops
would fail, many people would die.
3
2
- measures the
effects of an
earthquake using
a scale of I to XII

2003
What score you would give each of these earthquakes on the
Mercalli scale.
Figure rose
to 26,000
Images of the Bam earthquake - 2003
How can the damage from two
earthquakes of the same intensity
cause such differing degrees of damage?
- The
- the place below the surface where the earthquake
starts.
- the point on the surface directly above the focus
- an instrument used to measure the strength
of an earthquake.
-a scale which indicates the strength of an
earthquake.
- A scale which measures the effects of
an earthquake
A massive wave caused by an under water earthquake
The immediate
damage caused
by an earthquake
The after effects of
an earthquake
MARCH 11
TH
, 2011
9.0
Case study of an
earthquake in an MEDC
Primary effects
A tsunami - 10 meter high waves swept inland for 6 miles
Secondary effects
mostly damage caused by the
tsunami

Natural gas storage tanks burn at an oil refinery
Evacuation of thousands of people within a 20km exclusion
zone
Explosion at a nuclear reactor
Neon lights
turned off
People evacuate their offices
and pour into the streets of
Sendai
The
immediate
responses

Rescue workers
attend injured
people in Tokyo
People take refuge in
emergency shelters
Messages left by survivors at an evacuation centre
100,000 Japanese troops involved in search and rescue
People tested for levels of radiation
People
siphon petrol
from an
overturned
car
Location:
Date: Richter scale:
Plate boundary:
Primary effects:
Secondary effects:
Primary responses
Japan
11 / 3 / 2011 9.0
Destructive - Pacific / Eurasian plates
Destruction of buildings, flooding of large areas
of farmland and industry. Trains swept away,
ships lost, a dam burst, power lines and services
disrupted. 23,000 people died, thousands injured
500,000 living in shelters, fires spread, fuel
shortages, Fukushima nuclear plant damaged,
radioactive materials leaked, food shortages,
factories shut down, huge financial bill.
100,000 troops deployed to help, 230 emergency
teams, many countries sent aid, shelters set up
in schools and sports centres.
Long term responses
All new buildings made earthquake proof. Old
buildings refitted to earthquake proof standards.
12
th
January 2010
Case study of an
earthquake in an LEDC
Richter scale : 7
Type of plate boundary:
Conservative - N. American / Caribbean plates
PRIMARY
EFFECTS
Buildings collapse
250,000 dwellings destroyed or severely damaged
Infrastructure damaged roads, electricity cables, telephone lines, water
supplies
The cathedral and
Presidential Palace
Collapse
Buildings included:

Presidential palace
Cathedral
Schools
Hospitals
Police station
Prison
Damage at the port
Port damaged
Immediate response -
search with bare hands
and basic tools
SECONDARY
EFFECTS
People trapped
One million people made homeless
230,000 people died
Foul smell,
disease spreads
Suspected looters
arrested
.
Water shortages
People digging with bare hands
IMMEDIATE RESPONSES
Appeal for international aid
Aid is prepared to be sent
Aid supplies are
assembled abroad
Chinese rescue
workers arrive in Port
au Prince
Search and rescue teams
A success story!
US aircraft carrier acts as off-shore base for US rescue operation. It also
acts as a hospital ship.
US warship acted as a hospital.
People scramble to get water
bottles dropped by US
helicopter in Port au Prince.
Supplies distributed by
US troops
Makeshift hospitals set up
US citizens are evacuated by Air Force
Refugee camps are set up
LONGER TERM RESPONSES
Support needed
for amputees
Location:
Date: Richter scale:
Plate boundary:
Primary effects:
Secondary effects:
Haiti, Caribbean
12 / 1 / 2010 7.0
Conservative N. American / Caribbean plates
Destruction of buildings schools, hospitals, UN
headquarters, presidential palace, prison, police
stations.
Infrastructure destroyed roads, electricity
cables, telephone lines, water pipes.
230,000 people died
300,000 people injured
One million made homeless
Prisoners escaped
Looting
Breakdown in law and order
Foul smell
Disease spread
Long term responses
International aid helps Haiti to rebuild.
News buildings must be to earthquake proof
standards.
People return to live in their villages in the
countryside due to devastation of Port au Prince.
Primary responses
People digging with bare hands.
Appeals for international aid.
US was main contributor with troops,
warship/hospital, helicopters, general supplies.
Many other countries sent search and rescue
teams and other supplies.
Refugee camps set up.
How can we be
prepare for
earthquakes?
What are the 3 Ps?
Earthquakes are constantly monitored in the hope that a
warning can be given. Experts know where earthquakes
are likely to occur, but struggle to know when.
Building to an appropriate standard and design to
withstand movement is the main way of ensuring
protection.
Preparation involves hospitals, emergency services
and inhabitants practising for major disasters and
having drills in public buildings so that people know
what to do to increase their chance of survival.
26
th
December 2004
Distance travelled from epicentre 2,800 miles
Height of waves up to 10 metres
Date: 26
th
December 2004
Areas affected: SE Asia Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India,
Malaysia, Thailand, Maldives, Burma,
(also East Africa).
Richter Scale: 9
Primary Effects: Displacement of the sea bed causing a
tsunami.
Secondary Effects:
Approximately 220,000 dead or missing
Approx. 2 million homeless
Over 500,000 homes wrecked


Location: Indian Ocean, west of Sumatra, Indonesia
Secondary Effects continued:
Water supplies contaminated
Disease spreads more deaths
Farming destroyed
Industries destroyed
Widespread starvation likely
Communication lines wrecked
Massive cost of rebuilding
Worldwide relief operation
The majority of
ocean trenches are
located around the
Pacific Ocean at
destructive plate
boundaries.
At which type of boundary are
most ocean trenches located?
The subduction zone at a destructive margin is an ocean trench. One wall is
formed by the subducted ocean plate, the other by the continental plate.
Ocean trenches are very deep, typically 5,000 10,000 metres. They are
inaccessible to humans.

Human activities in the Andes

Human activities in the Andes
The Andes are the longest chain of fold mountains in the world,
stretching for 7,000km north-south along the western side of South
America. The mountain chain is about 300km wide and has an
average height of 4,000m.

For the people living in the Andes, the steep slopes and harsh
climate are challenges to be overcome, but the region does provide
opportunities for farming, energy production, mining and tourism.

Where are the Andes?
The Andes are young
fold mountains that
run the length of
South America

Farming

Farming: Key features
Irrigation has been used in the Andes for more
than 6,000 years.
Farmers use terracing to cope with the steep
slopes.
Crops are grown in valleys and grazing llamas and
alpacas takes place on bleak mountaintops.
Potatoes are grown widely throughout the Andes
as a staple crop.
Cash crops include cotton, tobacco and coffee,
which are mostly grown in the sheltered and more
fertile valley bottoms.

Llamas and alpacas are grazed on the
bleak mountain tops.
161
Mining

The Andes have rich deposits of
copper, gold, silver, tin and iron
ore, as well as coal, oil and
natural gas.


The Yanacocha gold mine in
Peru is the largest gold mine in
the world. It is an open cast
mine and the rocks containing
the gold are blasted with
dynamite.




Copper blasting in Chile

Hydroelectric power
Steep mountain slopes and high rainfall make the Andes ideal for
hydroelectric power production.

The Yuncan project in Peru (above) includes 16 miles of tunnels.

Hydroelectric power makes up 50 per cent of energy production
in Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru.
The
Yuncan
Project,
Peru

Tourism: The Inca trail, Peru
The trail covers 50km of old pathways linking together old Inca
settlements in the inhospitable mountains of the Andes. It is South
America's best known trek.

The trail is strictly controlled, and only 200 trekkers are allowed to
start out on the trail every day.
.
Tourism is a massive industry
for Peru and the country has a
lot to offer. In the East you can
take part in Eco-tourism
activities in the Amazon Basin.

Peru has some fantastic
coastline as well, but the
highlight of Peru is undoubtedly
the Inca Trail.

Problems of living in fold
mountain regions

Limited communications
Steep slopes
Poor soils
Bad weather