Motivation At Work

Key Elements
1. Intensity: How hard a person tries
2. Direction: Toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: How long a person tries
Motivation
The processes that account for an individuals
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal
Motivation consists of a conscious decision to
direct effort in an activity to achieve a goal that
will satisfy a predominate need





Links between
Motivation and Performance
that contributes to a workers job
performance.

Other contributing factors:

Personality and ability
Task difficulty
Resource availability
Working conditions
Chance or luck
2
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
(Maslow)
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
There is a hierarchy of five needs:
physiological, safety, social, esteem,
and self-actualization; as each need
is substantially satisfied, the next
need becomes dominant.
Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of
becoming
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Assumptions of Maslows
Hierarchy

Movement Up the Pyramid
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all
needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.
Maslow Application
A homeless person
will not be motivated to
meditate!
Individuals therefore
must move up the
hierarchy in order.
Theory X and Theory Y
A set of
assumptions
of how to
manage
individuals
who are
motivated by
lower order
needs

A set of
assumptions
of how to
manage
individuals
who are
motivated by
higher order
needs
Comparison of Satisfiers
and Dissatisfiers
2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.
Factors characterizing events
on the job that led to extreme
job dissatisfaction
Factors characterizing
events on the job that
led to extreme job
satisfaction
Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time:
How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, SeptemberOctober 1987. Copyright
1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.
3. Herzbergs Two-Factor
Theory
Hygiene
Factors
Motivators
Achievement
Responsibility
Growth
Work
Conditions
Salary
Company
Policies
7-9
Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites
but separate constructs
Extrinsic and
Related to
Dissatisfaction
Intrinsic and
Related to
Satisfaction
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and
Dissatisfaction
2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.
Criticisms of the Two-Factor
Theory
Herzberg says that hygiene factors must be met to remove
dissatisfaction. If motivators are given, then satisfaction can
occur.

Herzberg is limited by his methodology
Participants had self-serving bias
Reliability of raters questioned
Bias or errors of observation
No overall measure of satisfaction was used
Herzberg assumed, but didnt research, a strong relationship
between satisfaction and productivity

7-11
David McClellands Theory
of Needs
Need for Achievement
The drive to excel, to
achieve in relation to a set
of standards, to strive to
succeed
Need for Affiliation
The desire for friendly
and close personal
relationships
Need for Power
The need to make others
behave in a way that they
would not have behaved
otherwise
Bottom Line
Individuals have
different levels of needs
in each of these areas,
and those levels will
drive their behavior.
Equity Theory
Referent
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with
those of others and then respond to eliminate any
inequities
Equity Theory (contd)
Equity Theory (contd)
Choices for dealing with inequity:
1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)
Justice and Equity Theory
Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of the
outcome (the final distribution)
Who got what?
Procedural Justice
Perceived fairness of the
process used to determine
the outcome (the final
distribution)
How was who gets what
decided?
Interactional Justice
The degree to which one is
treated with dignity and
respect.
Was I treated well?
Three Types of Justice
Factors contributing to perceptions of procedural
fairness, The Allocator:
gives adequate reasons for the decisions
Follow consistent procedure over time and across
people
Use accurate information and appears unbiased
Allows two-way communication during the
allocation process
Welcomes appeals of the procedure or allocation
18
Job Satisfaction: Attitudes Towards Ones Job (cont.)
Procedural fairness seems especially likely
to provoke dissatisfaction when people
also see distributive fairness as being low

Dissatisfaction will be maximized when
people believe that they would have
obtained better outcomes if the decision
maker had used other procedures that
should have been implemented
19
Job Satisfaction: Attitudes Towards Ones Job (cont.)
Distributive Justice satisfaction with outcome and
organizational commitment

Procedural justice job satisfaction, employee trust,
withdrawal from the organization, job performance
and OCB

20
Ethical Values and
Behaviors of Leaders

Bottom Line
All three links between the boxes must be intact or motivation
will not occur. Thus,
Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform and
If they perform, they will be rewarded and
When they are rewarded, the reward will be something they
care about.
Expectancy Theory



Key Constructs of Expectancy Theory
Expectancy belief that effort leads to performance

Instrumentality belief that performance is related to rewards

Valence value or importance placed on a particular reward
3 Causes of Motivational Problems
Belief that effort will not result in performance

Belief that performance will not result in rewards

The value a person places on, or the preference a person
has for, certain rewards

Expectancy Theory: Managerial Implications of
Expectancy Theory

Increasing E P Expectancies

Influenced by the individuals self-efficacy persons belief that
he/she has the ability, motivation and situational contingencies to
complete a task successfully

can do attitude

Increase can do attitude necessary competencies, clear role
perceptions, and favorable situational conditions to reach desired
level of performance


expectancies can usually enhanced by providing proper equipment &
training, demonstrating correct work procedures, carefully
explaining how performance is evaluated and listening to employee
performance problems



24
Expectancy Theory: Managerial Implications of
Expectancy Theory (cont.)



Increasing P O Instrumentality

To measure employee performance accurately and distribute more
valued rewards to those with higher performance

Companies need to regularly communicate the existence of
performance based reward systems


25
Expectancy Theory: Managerial
Implications of Expectancy Theory (cont.)



Increasing Outcome Valences

Performance outcome influence work effort only when those outcomes
are valued by employees

Appreciate Diverse Needs individualized Motivational packages


26
Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)
Intentions to work toward goal are major source of
Motivation
Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with
self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.
But, the relationship between goals and performance
will depend on:
Goal commitment
I want to do it & I can do it
Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
National culture

Goal Setting in Action: MBO Programs

Management By Objectives Programs
Company wide goals and objectives
Goals aligned at all levels
Based on Goal Setting Theory

What Is MBO?
Key Elements
1. Goal specificity
2. Participative decision making
3. An explicit time period
4. Performance feedback
Management by Objectives (MBO)
A program that encompasses specific goals,
participatively set, for an explicit time period, with
feedback on goal progress
Cascading of Objectives
Banduras Self-Efficacy
Theory
Self-efficacy is an individuals belief that he or she is
capable of performing a task.
Higher efficacy is related to:
Greater confidence
Greater persistence in the face of difficulties
Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
Self-efficacy complements goal-setting theory

7-31
See E X H I B I T 7-4
Given Hard Goal
Higher Self-Set Goal
Increased Confidence
Higher Performance
Increasing Self-Efficacy
Enactive mastery
Most important source of efficacy
Gaining relevant experience with task or job
Practice makes perfect
Vicarious modeling
Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task
Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him-
or herself
Verbal persuasion
Motivation through verbal conviction
Pygmalion and Galatea effects self-fulfilling prophecies
Arousal
Getting psyched up emotionally aroused to complete task
Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task
7-32
Similar to goal-setting theory, but focused on a
behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one.

Behavior is environmentally caused
Thought (internal cognitive event) is not important
Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
Behavior is controlled by its consequences reinforcers
Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of
behavior
Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not
likely to be the sole cause


Reinforcement Theory
7-33
Integrating Contemporary
Motivation Theories
Based on Expectancy Theory
Summary and Managerial
Implications
Need Theories (Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland, Herzberg)
Well known, but not very good predictors of behavior
Goal-Setting Theory
While limited in scope, good predictor
Reinforcement Theory
Powerful predictor in many work areas
Equity Theory
Best known for research in organizational justice
Expectancy Theory
Good predictor of performance variables but shares many of
the assumptions as rational decision making
Employee Motivation A Powerful New
Model (Nitin Nohria, Boris Groysberg, and
Linda-Eling Lee HBR, 2008)
Four Drive
The Drive to Acquire
Physical goods, experiences travel and entertainment, events
that improve social status (promotion)
The Drive to Bond
Accounts for the enormous boost in motivation when employee
feel proud of belonging to org.
The Drive to comprehend
Jobs that challenge them and enable them grow and learn
The Drive to Defend
Quest to create institutions that promote justice, that have clear
goals and intentions and allow people to express their ideas and
opinions

Employee Motivation A
Powerful New Model (cont.)
Four Indicators of Motivation
Employee engagement energy, effort, and initiative
employees bring to jo
Satisfaction
Commitment
Intention to quit