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Stress and Coping

Jose L. Jarry, Ph.D., C.Psych.


Health Psychology, psy333
Department of Psychology
University of Toronto
October 28, 2002
Definition (1)
Aldwin (1994)
Quality of experience, produced through a person-
environment transaction, that through over- or under-arousal,
results in psychological or physiological distress
Hans Selye
The non-specific result of any demand upon the body, be the
effect mental or somatic
Eustress is a positive stressful experience, a state of physical
and psychological well-being that is associated with increased
motivation and the acceptance of a challenge.
What is essential to well-being is a balance to produce an
optimal level of arousal
Too little stress can be as harmful as too much
Stress can result from being over- or under-stimulated
Definition (2)
Lazarus & Folkman (1984)
A relationship between a person and the environment that
is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or
her resources and endangering his/her well-being
This definition introduces the important notion of
subjective appraisal
Walter Canon
Introduced the concept of homeostasis: bodys attempt at
maintaining a stable internal state
Stress challenges homeostasis
Fight or Flight response
Complex ANS reaction in preparation for emergencies
Definition (3)
Rice, P. R. (1999)
Stressors
External, environmental demands placed on us that cause
us to feel stressed
Subjective response
Interpretive mental state of the individual
Allows one to diminish, augment, or distort the impact of
external events
Bodys physical response to stress
Physiological challenges which, if prolonged, can result in
a negative state, or alternatively, an improved capacity to
cope physiologically
The Physiology of Stress
2 major components to the physical
response to stress:

Nervous system

Endocrine system
Structure of the Nervous System
Central nervous system is made of:
Brain
Spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system is made of:
Somatic nervous system
Receives information from the sensory organs
Controls movements of the skeletal muscles
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Primarily serves internal organs
Has 2 divisions:
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic Response to Stress
Hypothalamus causes:
Increases arousal in the sympathetic nervous system
Increased heart rate & blood pressure
Constriction of peripheral blood vessels
Respiration rates increase
Bronchial tubes dilate
Pupils dilate
Digestive processes decrease
Sympathetic activation prepares the body for intense
motor activity
Parasympathetic response to stress
Serves regenerative, growth-promoting, energy-
conserving functions
Its effects include the opposite of the effect of the
sympathetic nervous system
Functions under normal, non-stressful conditions
Also activated by the hypothalamus
re-establishes homeostasis in the system
reconstructive process following stressful experience
slows the heart rate & decreases blood pressure
decreases muscle tension
slows respiration
neutralizes fight or flight response
Structure of the Endocrine System
The endocrine system consists of ductless glands
distributed throughout the body
The neuroendocrine system is made of those
endocrine glands that are controlled by the
nervous system
Glands of the endocrine and neuroendocrine
systems secrete chemicals called hormones
Hormones move into the blood stream to be
carried throughout the body
Specialized receptors on target tissues or organs
allow hormones to have specific effects even
though they circulate throughout the body
Endocrine Responses to Stress
Hypothalamus causes:
The pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH) that stimulates the adrenal cortex
Sympathetic fibers to directly activate the adrenal
medulla
The adrenal glands are located on top of each kidney
Each gland is composed of:
an outer covering: the adrenal cortex
an inner part: the adrenal medulla
Both secrete hormones that are important in the
stress response
Adrenomedullary Response - SAM
Occurs through the activation of the sympathetic-
adrenal medulla (SAM) complex:
Perception of stress causes the hypothalamus (via
nervous connection) to activate sympathetic fibers
Sympathetic fibers activate the adrenal medulla
Adrenal medulla secretes the catecholamines:
epinephrine & norepinephrine
This causes:
Increased heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate &
blood glucose levels
Shuts down digestive system
Rapid, short-lived response to stress
Adrenocortical Response - HPA
Occurs through the activation of the hypothalamus-
pituitary-adrenal (HPA) cortex complex:
Perception of stress causes the hypothalamus to
release ACTH releasing hormone
This causes the anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH
ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete
glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids
Glucocorticoids
Protein and fat get metabolized into glucose
Reduce inflammation, suppress immune cells
Mineralocorticoids
Blood volume and pressure increase
Sympathetic and Endocrine Responses to Stress
Stress perception causes a chain reaction:
SAM
rapid, short-term stress reaction
the sympathetic NS stimulates the adrenal medulla
the adrenal medulla produces epinephrine and
norepinephrine
HPA
slower but longer-lasting response
the pituitary releases ACTH
ACTH causes the adrenal cortex to release
glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids
Brain Response to Stress
Limbic System
Adds an element of emotion to the experience of
stress
Usually negative emotions: fear, anger, anxiety, pain
Reticular formation
Communication network that filters messages to the
body
Receives input from all the sensory systems and
determines which sensory information is processed or
blocked
This allows us to selectively attend to specific tasks
while ignoring irrelevant information
The General Adaptation Syndrome (1)
Defined by Selye in 1956. Comprises 3 stages:
Stage I: Alarm
The bodys defences against stressors are mobilized
through activation of the sympathetic nervous
system
Activation of the SAM complex
Arousal of the sympathetic nervous system releases
hormones (adrenaline) that help prepare the body to
meet stress and danger
Highly adaptive short term response to an
emergency situation
The General Adaptation Syndrome (2)
Stage II: Resistance
The body enters this stage if the stress is prolonged
Activation of the HPA complex
Arousal is lower
But the body continues to draw on internal resources
at an above normal rate
Outwards appearance seems normal
Physiologically, the bodys internal functioning is
not normal
Sets the stage for diseases of adaptation (e.g., peptic
ulcers, ulcerative colitis)
The General Adaptation Syndrome (3)
Stage III: Exhaustion
Continued exposure to the same stressor
drains the body further
The capacity to resist is depleted
Illness results
This stage is characterized by activation of
the parasympathetic division of the ANS
But at an abnormally low level
In severe cases, results in death
Cognitive - Transactional Model
Lazarus & Folkman (1984)
Propose that the interpretation of stressful events
is more important than the events themselves
It is neither the environmental event nor the
persons response that defines stress
It is the individuals perception of the
psychological situation that defines stress
Stress is a function of the persons feeling of
threat, vulnerability, and ability to cope rather than
a function of the stressor
Distinguish three kinds of appraisal
Primary appraisal
Initial evaluation of a situation
3 possible outcomes:
Irrelevant
the event has no implication for the individuals
well-being
Benign-positive
the event may increase well-being
Stressful
the situation is perceived as harmful, threatening,
or challenging
Primary appraisal (2)
Harm/loss
involves actual significant physical or psychological
loss
psychological damage that has already been done
Threat
the anticipation of harm or loss
allows to anticipate and prepare for the future
Challenge
the event is perceived as stressful
the focus is on positive excitement
refers to the persons confidence in overcoming
difficult demands
Secondary Appraisal
Concerned with a persons evaluation of his/her ability to
cope with the situation
The individual asks 3 questions:
which coping options are available?
the likelihood that one can apply the strategy
the likelihood that any given options will work: will it
reduce stress?
Reappraisal
continuous reappraisal on the basis of new information
identical to the initial process
may lead to more stress
Coping (1)
Lazarus and Folkman (1984)
Constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to
manage specific internal and/or external demands that are
appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the
person
Several important elements of the definition:
Coping is a process of constant evaluation of the success
of ones strategies
Coping is learned as one encounters situations
Coping requires effort
Coping is an effort to manage. Success is not contingent
on mastery, just good enough
Coping (2)
Health & energy
Positive belief
the ability to cope is enhanced when people believe they
can successfully bring about desired consequences
Problem-solving skills
having specific knowledge or abilities related to specific
problem
Social skill
ability to get other people to cooperate
Social support
feeling of being accepted, loved, or prized by others
Material Resources
Coping (3)
Problem Focussed Coping
consists of changing the situation
redefining the problem
looking at alternative solutions
evaluating the implications of the alternatives
choosing the best one to act on
Emotion-focussed coping
consists of controlling and possibly changing the emotional
response to an event
cognitive responses such as avoidance or minimization
the goal is to decrease emotional distress
often used when the individual feels that nothing can be done
about the situation
Stress and Control
Stephen Weiss (1968, 1971)
Study 1
reliable escape response reduces development of ulcers
Study 2
predictable stressors produced fewer ulcers
true even in the absence of an escape response option
Study 3
feedback about effectiveness of response results in fewer ulcers
Conclusion
the physiological effects of stress can be greatly reduced if the
organism can engage in controlling behaviour
getting feedback that ones behaviour is effective can further
reduce the physiological effects of stress

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