Metallurgy

Introduction
Ceramics
Plastics
Metals
Materials

metals

high strength
electrical conductivity
thermal conductivity

Metals
Ferrous
Carbon steels
Low carbon, medium carbon, high
carbon steels
Alloy steels
Nonferrous
Aluminium,copper
Properties
Strength - Room temp, High temp
Impact - Room temp, Low temp
Ductility
Corrosion resistance General, pitting IGC,
SCC
Wear resistance
Erosion resistance

Chemical composition
Steel making
Processing route
Heat treatment

Metallurgical structure
Properties
Metallurgical structure
Type, proportion & Morphology of
microstructures
Grain size
Second phase particles size , distribution
& morphology
Inclusions Type ,size, volume fraction


Different structures
Ferrite (a) bcc
Austenite (g) fcc
Delta (d ) bcc
Iron carbide (Fe
3
C)
Martensite
Bainite

Ferrite - Pure iron, bcc iron with low carbon solubility

Pearlite - Grain structure resulting from a mechanical
combination of ferrite and cementite in layer formation

Austenite - grains of ferrite and pearlite change when
steel is heated to transformation temperature
Austenite will dissolve carbon and alloying elements

Martensite - Formed when carbon steel is rapidly cooled
by quenching. Untempered martensite is the hardest
and most brittle of the microstructures.
Micro structural Constituents in Steels
Crystal Structures
- Body centered cube
9 atoms: 8 at cube corners and 1
in the center
- Face centered cube
14 atoms: 8 at cube corners and
1 each on the six faces
Crystal Structures
Cementite - Iron carbide Fe
3
C
chemical compound of iron and carbon
IRON-IRON CARBIDE PHASE DIAGRAM

This diagram depicts, in a temperature vs.
composition plot, the regions of stability of
equilibrium phases

Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
723 C
14
Metallurgical transformations
0.2% C steel
Heat to 927C - all austenite grains - called
austenitising temperature
Cool to 815C - primary ferrite begins to
form at austenite grain boundaries
(allotriomorphs & Widmanstatten plates)
Further cooling causes more ferrite to form
and austenite to be enriched in carbon, until
at the eutectoid temperature ( 723C) the
remaining austenite transforms to pearlite,
a lamellar mixture of ferrite and carbide

15
Metallurgical transformations
Rapid cooling suppresses primary
ferrite formation and results in finer
lamellar spacing in pearlite
By holding at temperatures just
below the eutectoid temperature (say,
at 710C) the lamellar structure will
spherodise, yielding better ductility
16
Metallurgical transformations
1.0% C steel
Heat to 890C -- all austenite grains
Cool to 660C, primary carbide forms at
austenite grain boundaries
At the eutectoid temperature, the remaining
austenite transforms to pearlite.
Primary carbide can be suppressed by rapid
cooling.
Pearlite can be spheroidised by holding at
temperatures just below the eutectoid
17
18
ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION OF AUSTENITE
TTT Daigram
19
ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION OF AUSTENITE
By measuring length changes in a rod of steel
undergoing isothermal transformation
(dilatometry) or using hot stage microscope, it
is possible to determine the start and stop times
of the transformation
A partially completed isothermal transformation
curve for a 1080 (eutectoid) steel.
Between 723C and about 540C austenite
transforms to pearlite
Below 540C the ferrite + carbide
microstructure is no longer lamellar, but
changes to a feathery, acicular(needle-like)
structure, which is called Bainite
20
Below about 215C, austenite transforms to a
product called Martensite.
Martensite forms instantly ( 10
-6
sec) as the
temperature drops below the martensite - start
temperature, M
s
, which in this case is 215C
At each temperature below M
s
, only a fraction
of the austenite is transformed, until at the
martensite-finish temperature, M
f
, the
transformation is complete.
ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION OF
AUSTENITE
21
22
When austenite transforms to martensite
the carbon in the austenite does not have
time to precipitate as iron carbide and
emains in solution while the austenite
transforms to a body-centered tetragonal
unit cell -- a strained bcc cell.
Because of this martensite is a very hard,
low ductility product that increases in
hardness as the carbon content increases.
ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION OF
AUSTENITE
23
Plain-Carbon Steels
Properties depend on C content and thermo-
mechanical processing & the heat treatment the
steel has received.
For low carbon contents less than 0.5%, increasing
the carbon content, increases the pearlite, and thus
the tensile and yield strengths. Cold drawing
improves the tensile and yield strengths.
In the higher carbon range, 0.6-0.95 wt % the
pearlite has to be spheroidised in order to draw the
steel. Thus, drawing does not improve the tensile
strength, but does improve the yield strength.
Usually, the higher strength, the lower elongation.
24
Properties of Plain Carbon Steels
Bars and forgings for a wide
range of engineering
components. Connecting rods,
springs, hammers, axle shafts
requiring strength and
toughness.
Very strong, heat treatable to produce
a wide range of properties in
quenched and tempered conditions.
Difficult to weld. Can become brittle
below room temperature.
0.25 - 0.6
General engineering uses for a
mild steel
Strong, ductile, no useful hardening
by heat treatment except by
normalizing, but can be work-
hardened. Weldable.Ductile-brittle
transition temperature is just below
room temperature
0.1 - 0.25
Pressings where high
formability required
Soft, ductile, no useful hardening by
heat treatment except by normalizing,
but can be work-hardened. Weldable.
0.01 - 0.1
Applications Properties
Carbon content
wt %
Cutting tools like wood
chisels, files, saw blades.
Wear resistant and can be made
very hard at expense of toughness
and ductility. Cannot be welded.
Tend to be brittle if the structure
is not carefully controlled
0.9 - 2.0
Used where maximum
strength rather than
toughness is important.
Tools, wear resisting
components ( piano wire
and silver steels are in this
group).
Strong, whether heat treated or
not. Ductility lower when less
carbon is present
0.6 - 0.9
Applications Properties Carbon content wt %
Properties of Plain Carbon Steels
Strengthening mechanism
Solid solution
Interstitial solution
Precipitation
Grain refinement
Micro alloying
Controlled rolling
Accelerated cooling Accelerated
cooling & controlled rolling
28
QUENCHED & TEMPERED STEELS
Quench and tempering is a treatment to harden steel
by quenching, followed by tempering to improve the
ductility of the steel.
Three methods of carrying out Q&T treatments.
Conventional tempering
Martempering
Austempering
Conventional Tempering
Austenitize at temperatures for 0.5 hrs.
Oil quench to T below M
f

Reheat to 400F - 1000F for 1-10 hrs. to temper to desired
hardness
29
30
31
QUENCHED & TEMPERED STEELS
Martempering is used to avoid distortion and
cracking produced by conventional Q&T.
Austenitize, as before
Oil quench to T just above M
f
and hold to equalize
temperatures throughout the part
Air cool to T< M
f
Temper, as before
Austempering also avoids distortion
Austenitize, as before
Quench in salt bath to T> M
s
and hold until
austenite transforms to bainite and air cool
32
33
High Strength Low Alloy Steels
HSLA Steels were developed in the early 1970s to
provide the automotive industry with weight
reduction opportunities in parts that are designed
primarily for strength rather than stiffness, e.g.,
front end, crushable beams for crashworthiness.
Mild steel for body structures has yield strengths
near 30 ksi with % elongation near 50% for
excellent formability and a finish.
On the other hand HSLA steels have yield strengths
in the range 40-60 ksi with lower elongations of
23%.
34
High Strength Low Alloy Steels
HSLA Steels derive their strength from a
combination of strengthening mechanisms;
Solid solution strengthening elements
Very fine grain size due to controlled rolling
with close temperature control
Prevention of grain growth by pinning grain
boundaries with precipitated carbides of
vanadium or columbium.
Line pipe steels
C Mn P S
Grade C Mn S P
A25 Cl 0.21 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.030
A 0.22 0.90 0.030 0.030
B 0.27 1.15 0.030 0.030
X42 0.29 1.25 0.030 0.030
X46,X52 0.31 1.35 0.030 0.030
X42,X46,X52 0.25 1.25 0.030 0.030
X56,X60 0.26 1.35 0.030 0.030
X70 0.23 1.60 0.030 0.030
X80 0.18 1.80 0.030 0.018
Line pipe steels
C Mn P S
Grade YS( MPa) UTS (MPa)
A25 172 310
A 207 331
B 241 413
X42 281 413
X46 317 434
,X52 358 455
X60 413 517
X70 482 565
X80 551 620
line pipe steels
Process C Mn S P V Nb Al
Seamless 0.20 1.1 0.045 0.04 0.04 - -
0.25 1.4 0.06
SAW 0.17 1.35 0.035 0.035 - 0.03 -
0.21 1.45 0.035
High Freq.Res 0.15 1.1 0.035 0.04 0.06 - -
0.20 1.3 0.08
API 5L X 60
39
Effects on Steel
Phosphorous: solution harden, corrosion resistance, better
machining
Silicon: removes oxygen, increases oxidation resistance, strengthens
low-alloy steels, decreases ductility
Titanium: forms carbides, age hardening possible, used in stainless
steel
Chromium: corrosion resistance (stainless steel), abrasion resistance
at high C, high temperature oxidation resistance, solution hardening
Nickel: used with Cr in stainless steel, low temp. strength, toughness
Cobalt: increases hardness at high temperature, solution hardening
Manganese: Sequesters S as MnS, improves machining
Molybdenum: MoC provide abrasion resistance, slows grain growth in
fcc material, improves corrosion resistance, improves hot strength
Tungsten: Similar to Mo, delays tempering to higher temperatures
Vanadium: Slows fcc grain growth, delays softening, forms carbides
Different structures
Ferrite (a) bcc
Austenite (g) fcc
Delta (d ) bcc
Iron carbide (Fe
3
C)

Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
723 C
Carbon is soluble in
austenite up to 2.11 wt.
% at 1148 deg C
whereas the carbon
solubility in ferrite is
only 0.022 wt. % at 723
deg C
Eutectoid composition
is 0.8 wt % carbon
Eutectic & Eutectoid
Reactions
Hypo-eutectoid and
Hyper - eutectoid
steels
Microstructures
A1 , A3, Acm
nomenclature
Steel is a family of iron- iron
carbide (Fe
3
C) alloys, and other
alloying elements.
In alloy steels, alloying elements are
deliberately added to make steels
hardenable/ achieve specific
properties.

723 C
Different structures
Ferrite (a) bcc
Austenite (g) fcc
Delta (d ) bcc
Iron carbide (Fe
3
C)

47

48
Metallurgical transformations
49
Metallurgical transformations
V.ANBAZHAGAN,
Manager,WRI
Crystal Structures
- Body centered cubic (BCC)

- Face centered cubic (FCC)