Course Contents

Analogue Electronics
Operational Amplifiers
Non-ideal behaviour
Non-linear applications
Transistor Amplifiers
Review of the common-emitter amplifier
Differential amplifier
Multi-stage amplifiers
Solid State Devices


Operational Amplifiers
Properties of the ideal op-amp
Linear amplification circuits
Non-linear applications
Comparators
Oscillators
Precision rectification
More
Ideal Op-Amp Properties
Open-loop gain, A
0
, is infinite
Input impedance is infinite
Input current = 0
Output impedance is zero
( )
+
= V V A V
OUT 0
Negative Feedback
Actually, the open-loop gain is finite but not
accurately known
Open-loop gain varies:
from device to device
at different frequencies
with temperature
We usually want predictable performance from an
amplifier
Solution: negative feedback
Negative Feedback in Everyday Life
Listening to the radio/tv
If the sound is too loud: turn the volume down
If the sound is too soft: turn the volume up
What are we doing...
Measuring the sound level (using our ears)
Comparing with the desired target level
Error = Desired level Measured level
Adjust volume by an amount proportional to error
Result:
We dont need to know the exact relationship between the
volume knob and the sound level in order to get the desired
output.

-
+
Summing
Node
Ampli fier
Feedback
Network
Input
Error
In Technical Terms
Aim of the circuit is to minimise the error.
Simple Example
-
+
Summing
Node
Ampli fier
Input
Error
Output
Output > Input Error is -ve Output goes down
Output < Input Error is +ve Output goes up
Output ~ Input Error ~ 0 Output is unchanged
i.e. System is in a state of equilibrium
Confused?
-
+
Summing
Node
Ampli fier
Input
Error
Output
If Output ~ Input Error ~ 0, then shouldnt the output be
zero?
Yes, unless the amplifier gain is infinite.
In practice, error is a very small number (~ 0 for the purpose of
calculations). Equilibrium state is when the output
approximately equals the input.
Buffer Amplifier
IN OUT
IN OUT OUT
V
A
A
V
V A V A V
0
0
0 0
1+
=
= +
( )
+
= V V A V
OUT 0
but
( )
OUT IN
OUT IN OUT
IN
OUT
V A V A
V V A V
V V
V V
0 0
0
=
=
=
=
+

Buffer Amplifier Examples

IN OUT
V
A
A
V
0
0
1+
=
V 5 5
1
V 995 . 4 5
1000 1
1000
1000
V 95 . 4 5
100 1
100
100
V 55 . 4 5
10 1
10
10
V 5
0
0
0
0
=
+

=
+
= =
=
+
= =
=
+
= =
=
OUT
OUT
OUT
OUT
IN
V A
V A
V A
V A
V
Output should equal
input?
(In practice, A
0
~10
5
so error is tens of
microvolts)

Common Assumptions
In any linear op-amp circuit, if the open-loop gain is
assumed to be infinite, the difference between the
inputs (the error) must be zero to give a finite
output.
Also, op-amps are designed to have a very high input
impedance (ideally infinite)
Common assumptions are therefore:
The input voltages are equal
The input currents are zero
The output voltage will tend to the required level in order to
satisfy the other two conditions (thanks to negative
feedback)
Applying the Assumptions
! anything . 3
. 2
0 and 0 . 1
=
=
= =
+
+
OUT
V
V V
I I
Given:
V
OUT
= V
IN
R
IN
=
R
OUT
= 0
Buffer Amplifier Summary
As long as the open-loop gain is big the output
voltage will approximately equal the input.
The exact value of A
0
doesnt matter.
The output impedance will be zero.
The input impedance will be infinite.
(ideally)
(in practice, A
0
might not be very big, input
impedance is finite and output impedance is non-
zero more on the resulting effects later)
Negative Feedback Summary
If the response of a system is unknown,
negative feedback can allow the output to be
controlled.
The circuit/system aims to minimise the error
signal.
If the gain of the system is infinite, the error
can be reduced to zero.
NB. A feedback network can be introduced if
a gain other than one is required.