ELECTROMAGNETIC

RADIATION
REMOTE SENSING COMPONENTS
An ideal remote sensing system may have the following
components

1. Source of electromagnetic energy (normally sun)

2. Medium which interacts with this energy (atmosphere)

3. Ground objects

4. Sensor to detect and record the change in
electromagnetic energy
REMOTE SENSING PROCESSES
Energy Source or Illumination (A)
Radiation and the Atmosphere (B)
Interaction with the objects (C)
Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D)
Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E)
Interpretation and Analysis (F)
Application (G)
Seven Elements of Remote Sensing
A. Energy
Source or
Illumination
Seven Elements of Remote Sensing
B. Radiation
& Atmosphere
Seven Elements of Remote Sensing
C. Interaction
with Target
Seven Elements of Remote Sensing
D. Recording
of Energy by
the Sensor
Seven Elements of Remote Sensing
E.
Transmission,
Reception,
and
Processing
Seven Elements of Remote Sensing
F. Interpretation
And
Analysis
Seven Elements of Remote Sensing
G. Application
Wave model of EMR
Electromagnetic wave consists of an electrical field (E) which varies in
magnitude in a direction perpendicular to the direction in which the
radiation is traveling, and a magnetic field (M) oriented at right angles to
the electrical field. Both these fields travel at the speed of light (c).

Electromagnetic Radiation
Characterised by frequency (f) or
Characterised by wavelength (
f = C /
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Ultraviolet
Visible - 0.4 to 0.7 mm
Infrared (IR)
0.7 mm to 100 mm
Reflected IR
0.7 mm to 3.0 mm
Thermal IR -
3.0 mm to 100 mm
Microwave region
1 mm to 1 m

1. & x Rays Up to 10-8 m wavelength region

2. Ultraviolet From 10-9 to 10-7 m.

3. Visible regions (0.4 - 0.7 mm) is only one of many forms of electro-
magnetic energy and mostly used to acquire
remotely sensed data for natural resource mapping.
This wavelength interval is generally referred to a
light.

4. Near-, Middle- From 0.7 - 20 mm is subdivided: (0.7 -1.3) mm -
Thermal, Far- Near, 1.3 - 3.0 mm - Middle Infra-red regions 3.0 -14.0
Infrared, mm - Thermal Infrared and 7.0 - 15.0 mm - Far
Infrared). The sensors operating in this region of
EMR are Spectrometers, Radiometers, Polarimeters
and Laser-based active sensing systems.

5. Microwave region Down to a wavelength of 1 m. The sensors operating
in this region are RADAR, Microwave Radiometer
Altimeter, Scatterometer etc.

6. Radio waves Wavelengths longer than 1 m .
WAVELENGTH OF EMS
Information from objects to sensor is carried by
electromagnetic energy, through propagation of waves at
the velocity of light (c = 3 x 10
8
m/sec).


The distance from one wave peak to the next is called
wavelength .

The number of peaks passing through a fixed point in
space, per unit time is called wave frequency f.

All the waves obey the following general equation-

c = f

Electromagnetic spectrum ranges from most energetic
rays at wavelength less than 10
-13
m to very long radio
waves at wavelength longer than 100 km.
BEHAVIOUR OF ELECTRO MAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Three characteristics of electromagnetic
wave
Velocity is the speed of light, c=3 x 10
8
m/s
wavelength () is the length of one wave cycle, is
measured in metres (m) or some factor of metres
such as
centimetres (cm) 10
-2
m
micrometres (m) 10
-6
m
nanometres (nm) 10
-9
m
Frequency (v) refers to the number of cycles of a
wave passing a fixed point per unit of time.
Frequency is normally measured in hertz (Hz),
equivalent to one cycle per second, and various
multiples of hertz. unlike c and changing as
propagated through media of different densities, v
remains constant.
Hertz (Hz) 1
kilohertz (KHz) 10
3
megahertz (MHz) 10
6
gigahertz (GHz) 10
9
The amplitude of an electromagnetic wave is the
height of the wave crest above the undisturbed position Travel time from the Sun to Earth is 8 minutes
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wavelengths
EMR details
(mm)
Red: 0.620 - 0.7
Orange: 0.592 - 0.620
Yellow: 0.578 - 0.592

Green: 0.500 - 0.578



Blue: 0.446 - 0.500

Violet: 0.4 - 0.446

Bees and some other insects can
see near UV.
The Sun is the source of UV, but
only > 0.3 mm
(near UV) can reach the Earth.
What can you see?
Thermal
Infrared
EMR details
Interaction of radiation & matter
Electromagnetic radiation in different regions of
spectrum can be used for qualitative and
quantitative information
Different types of chemical information
Near, Mid, Far Infrared
Blackbody
emission
throughout
spectrum
Near-IR dominated
by reflection and
absorption
Source of EMR
All objects above absolute zero emit
electromagnetic energy, including water, soil,
rock, vegetation, and the surface of the Sun. The
Sun represents the initial source of most of the
electromagnetic energy remote sensing systems
(except radar and sonar)

Atmospheric Window
Longer wavelengths
Lower resolution for a given aperture
Atmospheric emission
Difficult or impossible from Earth

Why use Infrared?
Visible and IR region
Atmospheric Windows

Microwave Region
Atmospheric Window
Quantum Theory of EMR
Energy content: Q (Joules) = hf
Where (h is the Planck constant = 6.626 x 10 34 J
s)
= c/f = h c/Q or Q = hc /
The longer the wavelength, the lower its energy
content, which is important in remote sensing
because it suggests it is more difficult to detect
longer wavelength energy
Energy Interaction
Different surfaces also reflect energy
differently.
Energy-Matter Interactions

1. Absorption: occurs when radiation (energy) is
absorbed into the target and converted to other
forms of energy.
2. Reflectance: occurs when radiation "bounces"
off the target and is redirected.

3. Scattering: reflectance in an unpredictable
manner.

4. Transmittance: occurs when radiation passes
through a target.
Energy Interaction
(R) It is reflected
Energy Interaction
(A) It is absorbed
Energy Interaction
(T) It is transmitted
Energy Interaction
Most objects do all three, depending
upon frequency
In the visible portion of the spectrum, features are observed by virtue of
reflected and scattered solar radiation
In the infrared portion of the spectrum, emitted energy from the earth-
atmosphere system predominates
Paths and Interactions
Incident (SUN)
Scattering (Atm.)
Absorption (Atm.)
Transmittance (Obj.)
Scattering (Obj.)
Absorption (Obj.)
Reflectance (Obj.)
Scattering (Atm.)
Absorption (Atm.)
Reflected energy
(SENSOR)

Solar
irradiance
Reflectance from
study area,
Various Paths of
Satellite Received Radiance
Diffuse sky
irradiance
Tot al radiance
at the sensor
L L
L

Reflectance from
neighboring area,
1
2
3
Remote
sensor
detect or
At mosphere
5
4
1,3,5

E
L
90

0
T

v
T
0
0
v
p T
S
I
n
r

r
E
d
60 miles
or
100km
Absorption
Absorption is the process by which radiant energy
is absorbed and converted into other forms of
energy.

The absorption of the incident radiant energy may
take place in the atmosphere and on the terrain.
Absorption
Ozone, carbon dioxide, and water vapour are
the three main atmospheric constituents that
absorb radiation.

Ozone serves to absorb the harmful (to most
living things) ultraviolet radiation from the
sun. Without this protective layer in the
atmosphere our skin would burn when exposed
to sunlight.
Absorption
Carbon dioxide referred to as a greenhouse gas.
This is because it tends to absorb radiation
strongly in the far infrared (thermal infrared)
portion of the spectrum.

Water vapour in the atmosphere absorbs much
of the incoming longwave (thermal) infrared
and shortwave microwave radiations. The
presence of water vapour in the lower
atmosphere varies greatly from location to
location and at different times of the year.
Reflection
Reflection is the process whereby radiation
'bounces off' an object such as top of a cloud, a
water body, or the terrestrial earth.

Reflection differs from scattering in that the
direction associated with scattering is
unpredictable but in case of reflection it is
predictable.
Reflection
Reflection exhibits fundamental characteristics
The incident radiation, the reflected radiation, and a
vertical to the surface from which the angles of incident
and reflection are measured all lie in the same plane.
The angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are
approximately equal.

A considerable amount of incident radiant energy
from the sun is reflected back from the top of
clouds and other materials in the atmosphere.
Scattering
One very serious effect of the atmosphere is the
scattering of radiation by atmospheric particles.

It occurs when particles or large gas molecules
present in the atmosphere interact with EMR.

Scattering depends on several factors including the
wavelength of the radiation, the diameter of
particles or gases, and the distance the radiation
travels through the atmosphere.
Scattering
Shorter wavelength of visible light are scattered
more effectively than are longer wavelengths (red,
orange).

Therefore, when the Sun is overhead, the sky is
predominantly blue due to scattering by the gases
in the atmosphere.

At sunrise and sunset, the path of light is much
longer through the atmosphere. Most of the blue
light is scattered before it reaches an observer.
Thus the Sun appears reddish in color.
Types of Scattering
Selective
Rayleigh scattering
Mie scattering

Non-selective

SPECTRAL SIGNATURES
Signature
Any remotely sensed parameter, which directly or indirectly characterizes
the nature and/or condition of the object under observation


Spectral Variation: Variation in reflectivity and emissivity as a function
of wavelength. {unique pattern of wavelengths radiated by an object}

Spatial Variation: Variation of reflectivity and emissivity with spatial
position (i.e. shape, texture and size of the object).

Temporal variation: of emissivity and reflectivity like that in diurnal and
seasonal cycle.

Polarization variation: are introduced by the material in the radiation
reflected or emitted by it.

Each of above four features of EMR may be interdependent i.e. shape
may be different at different times, or in different spectral bands.
Spectral reflectance is the percentage of EMR
reflected by the object in a each wavelength or
spectral bands
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
Wavelength (nm)
R
e
f
l
e
c
t
a
n
c
e
average shrub
average grass
average soil
Spectral reflectance curve
Spectral reflectance curve shows the
relationship of electromagnetic spectrum
with the associated percent reflectance for
any given material.
Instrumentation
Measurement of reflectance and emittance of various materials in
laboratory and at natural field conditions. Two categories-

a) Spectrometer measures the spectral distribution of entire EMR

b) Radiometer measures the content of radiation within
predetermined spectral bands


If the spectrum is observed by eye spectroscope
If the spectrum is recorded on photography film spectrograph
If the instrument produces a spectrum that can be scanned in some way
with a detector to determine the wavelength position of emission or
absorption lines in the source spectrometer
If in addition, the instrument can measure the radiant exitance of these
lines spectroradiometer
Imaging platforms
Analytical Spectral Devices FieldSpec-spectrometer,
wavelenght 350 - 2500 nm
Spectro-radiometers
Imaging platforms
On the ground:
tripod, roof, handheld...
The detailed study of target,
e.g. determination of
characteristic reflectance curve
Measurements for comparison
with satellite data,
determination of atmospheric
influence
Image: Antenna of microwave
radiometer
REFLECTANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Reflectance characteristics of water
Clear water appears blue as mainly short
wave lengths are reflected (0.4-0.5 m).
Water absorbs completely the near IR (0.8-3
m), so that it appears black there.
Depending on the suspension and other color
giving features in the water it can appear
differently.
To separate water from land: Near IR 0.8-3
m is better.
Reflectance characteristics of water
Soils are background in many vegetation covered
areas and the only reflecting objects in vegetation
free areas.
Strong reflection in the visible spectrum, the actual
reflection characteristics depend on soil moisture.
Soil reflection increases continuously from the
blue wave length onwards over a broad range of
wave lengths.
If multispectral images are available this
characteristic (among others) can be used for the
identification of soils.
Reflectance characteristics of Vegetation
Vegetation is green (chlorophyll), which is
absorbing particularly blue and red main
reflection and transmission is at green.

The cell structure of the leaves causes a strong
reflection also in the near IR (0.8-1.1 m ).

Vegetation absorbs (blue, red) and reflects very
typically (near IR), so that vegetation can often
easily be distinguished from non-vegetation.