Unit 1

Concept of Measurement
Syllabus
General concept Generalized measurement
system-Units and standards-measuring
instruments- sensitivity, readability, range of
accuracy, precision-static and dynamic response
repeatability- systematic and random errors-
correction, calibration, interchangeability
Definition
Metrology is the name given to the science of
pure measurement.
Engineering Metrology is restricted to
measurements of length & angle
Measurement is defined as the process of
numerical evaluation of a dimension or the
process of comparison with standard
measuring instruments
Why measure things?
Check quality?
Check tolerances?
Allow statistical process control (SPC)?
Need of Measurement
Establish standard
Interchange ability
Customer Satisfaction
Validate the design
Physical parameter into meaningful number
True dimension
Evaluate the Performance

Methods of Measurement
Direct method
Indirect method
Comparative method
Coincidence method
Contact method
Deflection method
Complementary method

Direct method
Measurements are directly obtained
Ex: Vernier Caliper, Scales

Indirect method
Obtained by measuring other quantities
Ex : Weight = Length x Breadth x Height x Density


Comparative Method
Its compared with other known value
Ex: Comparators
Coincidence method
Measurements coincide with certain lines and
signals
Fundamental method
Measuring a quantity directly in related with
the definition of that quantity
Contact method
Sensor/Measuring tip touch the surface area
Complementary method
The value of quantity to be measured is
combined with known value of the same
quantity
Ex:Volume determination by liquid displacement
Deflection method
The value to be measured is directly indicated
by a deflection of pointer
Ex: Pressure Measurement
GENERALIZED MEASURING SYSTEM
Common elements of system
Primary sensing element
Variable conversion element
Variable manipulation element
Data transmission element
Data processing element
Data presentation element
Primary sensing
element
Variable conversion
element
Variable
manipulation element
Data transmission
element
Data processing
element
Data presentation
element
Temperature
Observer
Units and standards
SI: fundamental Units
Physical Quantity Unit Name Symbol
length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
temperature Kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
SI: Derived Units
Physical Quantity Unit Name Symbol
area square meter m
2

volume cubic meter m
3

speed
meter per
second
m/s
acceleration
meter per
second squared
m/s
2

weight, force newton N
pressure pascal Pa
energy, work joule J
Supplementary units
Physical Quantity Unit Name Symbol
Plane angle Radian
rad
Solid angle Steradian
sr
Standards
International standards
Primary standards
Secondary standards
Working standards

International
International Organization of Legal Metrology, Paris
International Bureau of Weights and Measures at
Sevres, France
India
National Physical Laboratory
Dr. K.S. Krishnan Marg
New Delhi - 110012
India
Phone: 91-11-45609212
Fax: 91-11-45609310
Email: root@nplindia.org or root@nplindia.ernet.in




Measuring Instruments
Deflection and null type instruments
Analog and digital instruments
Active and passive instruments
Automatic and manually operated
instruments
Contacting and non contacting instruments
Absolute and secondary instruments
Intelligent instruments.
DEFLECTION AND NULL TYPE
Physical effect generated by the measuring
quantity
Equivalent opposing effect to nullify the physical
effect caused by the quantity
ANALOG AND DIGITAL
INSTRUMENTS
Physical variables of interest in the form of
continuous or stepless variations
Physical variables are represented by digital
quantities
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE INSTRUMENTS
Instruments are those that require some source
of auxiliary power
The energy requirements of the instruments are
met entirely from the input signal
Automatic and manually operated
Manually operated requires the service of
human operator
Automated doesn't requires human
operator
Contacting And Non Contacting Instruments
A contacting with measuring medium
Measure the desired input even though they
are not in close contact with the measuring
medium
Absolute and Secondary Instruments
These instruments give the value of the electrical
quantity in terms of absolute quantities
Deflection of the instruments can read directly
Intelligent instruments
Microprocessors are incorporated with
measuring instruments
Help topics
http://www.tresnainstrument.com/education.
html
Characteristics of Measuring Instrument
Sensitivity
Readability
Range of accuracy
Precision
Definition
Sensitivity- Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of
the magnitude of response (output signal) to the
magnitude of the quantity being measured
(input signal)
Readability- Readability is defined as the
closeness with which the scale of the analog
instrument can be read
Definition
Range of accuracy- Accuracy of a measuring
system is defined as the closeness of the
instrument output to the true value of the
measured quantity
Precision- Precision is defined as the ability of the
instrument to reproduce a certain set of readings
within a given accuracy


Sensitivity
If the calibration curve is liner, as shown, the sensitivity
of the instrument is the slope of the calibration curve.
If the calibration curve is not linear as shown, then the
sensitivity varies with the input.
Sensitivity

This is the relationship between a change in the
output reading for a given change of the input.
(This relationship may be linear or non-linear.)

Sensitivity is often known as scale factor or
instrument magnification and an instrument with a
large sensitivity (scale factor) will indicate a large
movement of the indicator for a small input
change.
Load Cell
Force, F
Output, V
o

Output, V
o
(V)
Input, F
i
(kN)
Slope = 5 V/kN
K
Input, F (kN) Output, V
o
(V)
Sensitivity, K = 5 V/kN
Block Diagram:
Example
(1) A 0.01 W/A meter with 5 A fsd,
R
m
= W/A x A
= 0.01 x 5 = 0.05 W
V
max
across the Meter will be
= 5 A x 0.05 W
= 0.25 V for fsd.
(2) A 0.1 W/A meter with 5 A fsd,will drop 2.5 V
(i.e., it is 10 times less sensitive), which may bias
the results
Readability

Readability is defined as the ease with which
readings may be taken with an instrument.
Readability difficulties may often occur due to
parallax errors when an observer is noting the
position of a pointer on a calibrated scale
Readability
What is the value ?


What is the value ?

What is the value ?

Accuracy
Accuracy = the extent to which a measured
value agrees with a true value
The difference between the measured value &
the true value is known as Error of
measurement
Accuracy is the quality of conformity
Example: Accuracy
Who is more accurate when measuring a book that
has a true length of 17.0 cm?
A :
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm

B ::
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm
Precision
The precision of a measurement depends on the
instrument used to measure it.
For example, how long is this block?

How big is the beetle?
Measure between the head
and the tail!

Between 1.5 and 1.6 in

Measured length: 1.54 in

The 1 and 5 are known with
certainty

The last digit (4) is estimated
between the two nearest fine
division marks.
Example: Precision
Who is more precise when measuring the same 17.0
cm book?

A:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm

B ::
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm
Accuracy vs. Precision
High Accuracy
High Precision
High Precision
Low Accuracy
Three targets
with three
arrows each to
shoot.
The person hit the bull's-eye?
Both
accurate
and precise
Precise but
not
accurate
Neither
accurate
nor precise
How do they
compare?
Can you define accuracy vs. precision?
Uncertainty
The word uncertainty casts a doubt about the
exactness of the measurement results
True value = Estimated value + Uncertainty
Why Is There Uncertainty?
Measurements are performed with instruments,
and no instrument can read to an infinite number of
decimal places
Which of the instruments below has the greatest
uncertainty in measurement?
Reading a Meterstick
. l
2
. . . . I . . . . I
3
. . . .I . . . . I
4
. . cm

First digit (known) = 2 2.?? cm
Second digit (known) = 0.7 2.7? cm
Third digit (estimated) between 0.05- 0.08 cm
Length reported = 2.77 cm
or 2.76 cm
or 2.78 cm
Known + Estimated Digits
In 2.77 cm

Known digits 2 and 7 are 100% certain

The third digit 7 is estimated (uncertain)

In the reported length, all three digits
(2.77 cm) are significant including the
estimated one
Performance of Instruments
All instrumentation systems are characterized
by the system characteristics or system
response
There are two basic characteristics of
Measuring instruments, they are
Static character
Dynamic character

Static Characteristics
The instruments, which are used to measure
the quantities which are slowly varying with
time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with
time, is called static characteristics.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INSTRUMENTS
Accuracy
Precision
Sensitivity
Resolution
Threshold
Drift
Error
Repeatability
Reproducibility

Dead zone
Backlash
True value
Hysteresis
Linearity
Range or Span
Bias
Tolerance
Stability
Resolution

This is defined as the smallest input increment
change that gives some small but definite
numerical change in the output.
Threshold

This minimum value of input below which no
output can be appeared is known as threshold
of the instrument.
input
Output
Drift

Drift or Zero drift is variation in the output of
an instrument which is not caused by any
change in the input; it is commonly caused by
internal temperature changes and component
instability.

Sensitivity drift defines the amount by which
instruments sensitivity varies as ambient
conditions change.
input
Output
zero
drift
input
Output
sensitivity drift
input
Output
sensitivity drift
zero
drift
Error The deviation of the true value from
the desired value is called Error
Repeatability It is the closeness value of
same output for same input under same
operating condition
Reproducibility - It is the closeness value of
same output for same input under same
operating condition over a period of time

Range
The Range is the total range of values which
an instrument is capable of measuring.
Hysteresis

This is the algebraic difference between the average
errors at corresponding points of measurement
when approached from opposite directions, i.e.
increasing as opposed to decreasing values of the
input.
Actual/ Input
Value
Measured
Value
Ideal
Hysteresis is
caused by
energy
storage/
dissipation in
the system.
Zero stability

The ability of the instrument to return to
zero reading after the measured has returned to
zero
Dead band


This is the range of different input values over
which there is no change in output value.
Linearity- The ability to reproduce the input
characteristics symmetrically and linearly
Backlash Lost motion or free play of
mechanical elements are known as backlash
True value The errorless value of measured
variable is known as true value
Bias The Constant Error
Tolerance- Maximum Allowable error in
Measurement
Dynamic Characteristics
The set of criteria defined for the
instruments, which are changes rapidly with
time, is called dynamic characteristics.
Dynamic Characteristics
Steady state periodic
Transient
Speed of response
Measuring lag
Fidelity
Dynamic error


Steady state periodic Magnitude has a
definite repeating time cycle
Transient Magnitude whose output does not
have definite repeating time cycle
Speed of response- System responds to
changes in the measured quantity




Measuring lag
Retardation type :Begins immediately after the
change in measured quantity
Time delay lag : Begins after a dead time after the
application of the input
Fidelity- The degree to which a measurement
system indicates changes in the measured
quantity without error
Dynamic error- Difference between the true
value of the quantity changing with time &
the value indicated by the measurement
system

Errors in Instruments
Error = True value Measured value
or
Error = Measured value - True value

Types of Errors
Error of Measurement
Instrumental error
Error of observation
Based on nature of errors
Based on control
Error of Measurement
Systematic error -Predictable way in
accordance due to conditions change
Random error - Unpredictable manner
Parasitic error - Incorrect execution of
measurement

Instrumental error
Error of a physical measure
Error of a measuring mechanism
Error of indication of a measuring instrument
Error due to temperature
Error due to friction
Error due to inertia
Error of observation
Reading error
Parallax error
Interpolation error
Nature of Errors
Systematic error
Random error
Based on control
Controllable errors
Calibration errors
Environmental (Ambient /Atmospheric Condition)
Errors
Stylus pressure errors
Avoidable errors
Non - Controllable errors
Correction
Correction is defined as a value which is added
algebraically to the uncorrected result of the
measurement to compensate to an assumed
systematic error.
Ex : Vernier Caliper, Micrometer


Calibration
Calibration is the process of determining and
adjusting an instruments accuracy to make
sure its accuracy is with in manufacturing
specifications.

Interchangeability
A part which can be substituted for the
component manufactured to the small shape
and dimensions is known a interchangeable
part.
The operation of substituting the part for
similar manufactured components of the
shape and dimensions is known as
interchangeability.


Compiled by
D.Vasanth Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Jansons Institute of Technology