Voice Over IP

Introduction to digital voice

technology
 Digitizing Analog Signals

 Analog signal value are expressed in term of

Amplitude, Frequency and Phase.

 Analog input is sent to Codec, output is

digital stream of 0’s and 1’s.
 Digitizing Analog Signals

 Sampling.
 Quantization.
 Encoding.
 Compression (Optional).
 Sampling

Nyquist Theorem
In order to digitize an analog signal,
the signal must be sampled at a rate
equal to that of twice the highest
frequency of the signal to be digitized.
 Sampling

Audible spectrum of frequencies

200 Hz 20,000 Hz

Human voice frequencies

250 Hz 10,000 Hz

“Typical” Telephone channel frequencies

300 Hz 3,000 Hz
 Sampling

 For Telephone Voice = 300 ------ 3000 Hz

 Because of Variation = 270 ------ 3300 Hz
 Nyquist =0 ------ 4000 Hz
 Sampling

Nyquist Theorem

Fq = 2fm
Fq = 2 (4000) Hz
Fq = 8000 Hz
 Sampling

ts = 1 / 8000

ts = 125 ms

So take a sample after every 125 Micro

Sec.
Sampling
 Sampling
Sample Sample
125 ms 125 ms
 Sampling

G.711
1 sample = 8 bits
8000 Sample = 64000
= 64 kbps
G.729
1 sample = 1 bits
8000 Sample = 8000
= 8 kbps
 Quantization

 Express a mathematical value for each of the

Sample taken.

 In the case of digitizing analog voice, the values

assigned are in the form of 8-bits binary words.
 Quantization

 256 combinations
 255 are used
 127 above zero, 127 below and 1 for zero it self.
 Bit patern of all zero’s is never used.
 mu-Law
 a-Law
 Quantization
Amplitude

Quantization scale

Example: this sample

maps to this quantifiable
value

Quantified value
(8- bit values assigned to
each delineation)

Zero reference
Time Note: Each line represents
1/8000 of a second
(samples)
 Quantization
Amplitude

Quantization scale

Example: this sample

maps to this quantifiable
value

Quantified value
(8- bit values assigned to
each delineation)

Zero reference
Time Note: Each line represents
1/8000 of a second
(samples)
 Quantization
 If a samples amplitude fell exactly between two
samples – “quantization error”
 Quantization error creates “quantization noise”
 One error may not be heard but continuous error
can create hearable noise.
 Encoding
 Sampling Quantization Encoding

 Represents values in 8 bits reference.

 Encoding

P Se Se Se St St St St

 P - Polarity
 Se - Segment
 St - Step
 Encoding
 First bit represents Polarity (+ve , -ve)

 Next 3 bits represents Segments, sometimes called Chord,

the area of the scale in which this sample is found.

 Next 4 bits represents Steps on delineation scale.

 Encoding

1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
P Se St

 1st bit shows that Polarity is above zero.

 “3” (011) shows that sample situated in 3rd
segment.
 “5” (0101) shows sample is on the 5th delineation
within the segment 3.
 Review
Sampling.
Samples are taken at a rate of 8000 t/s.

Quantization.
Each sample is quantified in comparison to a scale that has
delineation grouped in segments
 Review
Encoding.
Each quantifies sample will produce an encoded 8-bit word
that represents the sample’s amplitude.
NOTE:
8000 samples per second times 8 bits per sample yields
64000 - bits per second to represent one second of sound.
 Compression

 Wave Form Compression:

Fellows the approach used for PCM encoding.

 Vocoder Compression:
Synthesized voice with processing intelligence.

 Hybrid Compression:
A combination of wave and vocoder compression.
 Wave Form Compression
 Subset of the encoding schemes.

 Known as “Wave Form Coding”.

 Tracks and fellows the actual wave form as it develops

in real time.
 Comparative Differential Values.
 Wave Form Compression

 ADPCM

 40000, 32000, 24000, 16000 bps

 ITU-T G.726 and G.727

 Wave Form Compression

 Pros –
Reduced bandwidth consumption
Simple and inexpensive to process
 Cons –
Poorer audio quality at low rate.
 Vocoder Compression

 Pros –
Deduced bandwidth consumption
 Cons –
Expensive to process
Requires specialized electronics
Sound synthetic
Speaker is not recognized
 Hybrid Compression

 Combines best of Wav and Vocoder compression

techniques

 High quality voice at low bit rate

 Extensively used in the digital cellular telephone

industry.
 Hybrid Compression

 Coded Excited Linear Predictive ( CELP )

Has a “Code Book”
Like STAC

 Low Delay CELP (LD - CELP )

Makes a Code Book directly from speaker’s voice
ITU-T’s G.728 at 16000 bps
 Hybrid Compression

 Conjugate Structure Algebraic CELP

Modified LD – CELP
High – Quality Speech at 8000 bps
 Hybrid Compression
 Pros –
Excellent audio quality
Very low bit rates
Adapts to speaker
 Cons –
Requires specialized processing chips
Requires memories
Induces processing delay
Digital Speech Interpolation
 Voice Activity Detection ( VAD )

 Digital Speech Interpolation (DSI) is a DSP function

 “Enter Silent Period”

 “Comfort noise”