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1
Amity School of Engineering &
Technology
Electrical Science
Credit Units: 03
Mr. Vivek Singh Kushwah
Assistant Professor (ASET)


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Module I
Basic Electrical Quantities
2

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ELECTRICAL ENERGY:
Total amount of work done.
Product of power and time
W = P.t
W = I
2
R.t Joules (w/sec)

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Power
The rate at which work is done, or the
rate at which heat is generated.
Unit is joules/second or Watt.
P = V. I
V = I.R
P =I
2
R

4

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Charge
An objects electrical charge is determined
by the number of electrons that the object
has gained or lost. Because such a large
number of electrons move.
a unit called the "coulomb" is used to
indicate the charge.
One coulomb is equal to 6.28 x 10
18

(billion) electrons.

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Current
- Charge in motion is referred to as current.
Current units = charge/time = coulomb
/sec = amperes.
Electron current, or amperage, is
described as the movement of free
electrons through a Conductor.
it is common to use a capital A to
indicate amps or amperage (amps)

-


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Voltage
Voltage, electromotive force (emf), or
potential difference, is described as the
pressure or force that causes electrons
to move in a conductor.
The basic unit of measure for potential
difference is the volt (symbol V).

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Electric Field Strength
*Electric field strength is a quantitative expression
of the intensity of an electric field at a particular
location. The standard unit is the volt per meter
(v/m or v m
-1
).
* A field strength of 1 v/m represents a potential
difference of one volt between points separated by
one meter.
*The field strength at a particular distance from an
object is directly proportional to the electric
charge.
& inversely proportional to the distance from a
charged object.

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The amount of magnetic flux per unit area of a
section, perpendicular to the direction of flux.
* Below Equation is the mathematical
representation of magnetic flux.



9
Magnetic Flux Density

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Resistance
It is defined as the property of the material by
which it opposes the flow of current through it.
Denoted by R.
Unit () Ohms.
The amount of current flow depends upon the
resistance of the conductor.
The lower the resistance, the higher the current
flow for a given amount of voltage. The higher
the resistance, the lower the current flow.



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Inductance

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The ability of a coil to store energy, induce a
voltage in itself, and oppose changes in
current flowing through it.
The symbol used to indicate inductance is L.
The units of measurement are called Henries
(H).
One henry is the amount of inductance (L)
that permits one volt to be induced (V
L
) when
the current through the coil changes at a rate
of one ampere per second.

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Capacitance
12
The ability to store an electric charge and is
symbolized by the capital letter C.
Measured in farads, is equal to the amount
of charge (Q) that can be stored in a device
or capacitor divided by the voltage (E)applied
across the device or capacitor plates when
the charge was stored.





E
Q
C =

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Ideal Source
13
A source with large internal impedance or source
impedance is drawn as a Current Source.
When internal impedance is infinite then we have an
Ideal Current Source.
An Ideal Current Source is a Constant Current Source
and it supplies constant terminal current irrespective of
the terminal voltage.
Similarly an Ideal Voltage Source has zero internal
impedance. It gives Constant Terminal Voltage
irrespective of load current.
In real life we cannot have Ideal Voltage Source or Ideal
Current Source.

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Ideal Source Contd
An ideal voltage source is that source which :
a) Has Zero internal impedence.
b) 0% Regulation i.e. it gives a constant
terminal voltage irrespective of the load
current.
An ideal current source is that source which:
a) Has Infinite internal impedence.
b) Gives constant terminal current irrespective
of the load voltage.

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Independent Source
15
Those sources which do not depend upon the values of
the current or the voltages in any other part of that circuit
are called independent sources.
An independent voltage source is a Thevenin Equivalent
of power source as shown below:



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Independent Source Contd
An independent current source is Norton
Equivalent of power source as shown
below.


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Controlled Source
Those sources which depend upon the
values of either voltage or current at any
part of that circuit are called dependent
(or) controlled sources.
Types of controlled sources:
a) Voltage Controlled Voltage Source
b) Voltage Controlled Current Source
c) Current Controlled Voltage Source
d) Current Controlled Current Source

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Types of controlled Source

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Module II
Network Analysis
Techniques & Theorems

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Ohms Law :

The current flowing through the electric
circuit is directly proportional to the potential
difference across the circuit and inversely
proportional to the resistance of the circuit at
constant temperature.
I = V/R
i.e., V = IR (Volts)
20
I
R
V

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Circuit Principles
RESISTANCE IN SERIES: When resistors are
connected in series. Such that the same
current passes through all of them then they
are said to be series.

R1 R2
R3
+ -
V
V1
V2 V3

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Circuit Principles contd
Then,
V = V1+V2+V3
By ohms law V1 = IR1; V2=IR2; V3=IR3 [V=IR]

V = IR1+IR2+IR3

= I (R1+R2+R3)

= I. Req - equ. resistor of the
current

Req = R1+R2+R3

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RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL
When resistor are connected in parallel. Such
that the same voltage is applied to each, then
they are said to be parallel.



R2
R3
I1
I2
I3
I
+ -
V
R1

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I = I1+ I2+ I3
By ohms law; I1 = V/R1; I2 = V/R2; I3
=V/R3.
I = V/R1+V/R2+V/R3
= V [1/R1+1/R2+1/R3]
= V. [1/Req]
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Examples
Find the Req between two points A & B ?

25
2
2
3
3
A
4
B
1/R = +1/3+1/3 = 1.17
(R = 1/1.17= 0.8547)
Req = 2+.85+4
Req = 6.85


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Series-Parallel Circuit Analysis
When solving for voltage, current, and resistance
in a series-parallel circuit, follow the rules which
apply to the series part of the circuit, and follow
the rules which apply to the parallel part of the
circuit.
Solving these circuits can be simplified by
reducing the circuit to a single equivalent
resistance circuit, and redrawing the circuit in
simplified form. The circuit is then called an
equivalent circuit.
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Current division rule
In parallel circuit voltage is constant (i.e. Voltage is same
everywhere in the circuit) but the current is divided. The current
division rule is used to calculate the current in parallel network.

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Voltage divider rule
Voltage divider rule states that the voltage across the
resistor in a series circuit is equal to the value of that
resistor times total impressed voltage across the series
elements divided by the total resistance of the series
elements.
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Kirchoffs Current Law
The current arriving at any junction point in a
circuit is equal to the current leaving that junction.
can be related to conservation of charge.

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i2
i3
i1
i6
i5
i4

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Kirchoffs Current Law contd
Consider a function formed by 6 conductors.
The current in these conductors are i1,
i2,i3,i4.i5,i6.Some of these currents are flowing
towards and others away from A.
According to Kirchoffs current Law,
i1+i4+i5+i6 = i2+i3
(Flowing towards) (Flowing away
from A)

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Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
The voltage law gives the relationship between
the "voltage drops" around any closed loop in a
circuit, and the voltage sources in that loop.
The total of these two quantities is always equal.
can be related to conservation of energy.
In equation form:

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Kirchhoffs voltage law can be applied only to
closed loops. A closed loop must meet two
conditions:
1. It must have one or more voltage sources.
2. It must have a complete path for current flow
from any point, around the loop, and back to that
point

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Closed loop

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Fig ABCDA forms a closed circuit.
From A -> B, We have a potential drop of IR1.
From D -> A, We have a potential drop of V.
Sum of potential drops = IR1+IR2+IR3
Potential rise from D -> A =V
IR1+IR2+IR3 = V
B
I
C
A
D
+
-
I
R2
R1
R3
I

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what is the current flow in Figure. Assume that the
current is flowing in the direction shown?

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solution
The result is negative. The current is actually 0.5
ampere in the opposite direction to that of the
assumed direction.

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Find I
2
in the circuit shown in Figure using
Kirchhoffs voltage and current laws.


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Find the current flowing in the 40
Resistor, R
3.


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The circuit has 3 branches, 2 nodes (A and B) and 2
independent loops.
Using Kirchoffs Current Law, KCL the equations are given as;
At node A : I
1
+ I
2
= I
3

At node B : I
3
= I
1
+ I
2

Using Kirchoffs Voltage Law, KVL the equations are given as;
Loop 1 is given as : 10 = R
1
x I
1
+ R
3
x I
3
= 10I
1
+ 40I
3

Loop 2 is given as : 20 = R
2
x I
2
+ R
3
x I
3
= 20I
2
+ 40I
3

Loop 3 is given as : 10 - 20 = 10I
1
- 20I
2

As I
3
is the sum of I
1
+ I
2
we can rewrite the equations as;
Eq. No 1 : 10 = 10I
1
+ 40(I
1
+ I
2
) = 50I
1
+ 40I
2

Eq. No 2 : 20 = 20I
2
+ 40(I
1
+ I
2
) = 40I
1
+ 60

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We now have two "Simultaneous Equations" that can be
reduced to give us the value of both I
1
and I
2.

Substitution of I
1
in terms of I
2
gives us the value of I
1
as
-0.143 Amps
Substitution of I
2
in terms of I
1
gives us the value of I
2
as
+0.429 Amps
As : I
3
= I
1
+ I
2

The current flowing in resistor R
3
is given as :
-0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 Amps
and the voltage across the resistor R
3
is given
as : 0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts
The negative sign for I
1
means that the direction of current flow
initially chosen was wrong, but never the less still valid. In fact,
the 20v battery is charging the 10v battery.

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Network Reduction: StarDelta Transformation
Because of its shape, the network shown in Figure is
called a T (tee) or Y (wye) network.
These are different names for the same network.


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The network shown in Figure is called (pi) or
(delta) because the shapes resemble Greek letters
and . These are different names for the same network.

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Rule 1: The resistance of any branch of a Y network is equal to
the product of the two adjacent sides of a network, divided by
the sum of the three resistances.


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Rule 2: The resistance of any side of a network is
equal to the sum of the Y network resistance,
multiplied in pairs, divided by the opposite branch of
the Y network.
Find R
t
at terminals a and d.



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Step 2: Now, we can redraw the Y circuit as a circuit and
reconnect it to the original circuit.

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Y REDRAWN CIRCUIT

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STEPS TO SIMPLIFY REDRAWN CIRCUIT

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Source Transformation
Source transformations are easy to perform as long
as there is a familiarity with Ohms Law. If there is a
voltage source in series with an impedance, it is
possible to find the value of the equivalent current
source in parallel with the impedance by dividing the
value of the voltage source by the value of the
impedance.
The converse also applies here: if a current source
in parallel with an impedance is present, multiplying
the value of the current source with the value of the
impedance will result in the equivalent voltage
source in series with the impedance. A visual
example of what is being done during a source
transformation can be seen in Figure

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Remember V=I.Z





Figure . An example of a DC source transformation. Notice
that the impedance Z is the same in both configurations.


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Nodal Analysis
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Substitute these equations for I1, I2, and I3 into
Kirchhoffs current equation.

59
* Find all voltage drops and currents using node voltage analysis?

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Loop Analysis
Using Kirchhoffs laws, it is possible to take a circuit
with two loops and several power sources and
determine loop equations, solve loop currents, and
solve individual element currents.

62

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The first step is to draw an assumed direction of
current flow. It does not matter whether the direction
is correct. If it is wrong, the resulting value for
current will be negative.

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Second, mark the polarity of voltage across each
component . It is necessary to choose a direction for
current through the center leg, but it is not
necessary to put in a new variable. It is simply I2 - I1.

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64
Third, apply Kirchhoffs voltage law to loops one and two by
picking a point in each loop and writing a loop equation of
the voltage drops around the loop; then set the equation equal
to zero.

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Figure shows Loop one.
From Point A to Point B, there is an increase in voltage of 8 volts.
From Point C to Point D, there is an increase in voltage of 200 (I
2
- I
1
).
From Point D to Point E, there is a decrease in voltage of 10 volts.
From Point E to Point A, there is a voltage decrease of 50I
1
volts.
The result in equation form is illustrated in equation.
8 + 200 (I
2
- I
1
). - 50 I
1
- 10 = 0 (1)
65

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66
Using the same procedure for Loop 2, the resulting equation is:
10 - 200 (I
2
- I
1
) + 40 - 100 I
2
= 0 (2)
Fourth, solve equations (1) and (2) simultaneously. First, rearrange and
combine like terms in the equation for Loop 1.

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The current flow through R
1
(50 ) is I
1
. The current
flow through R
2
(100 ) is I
2
, and through R
3
(200 ) is
I
2
- I
1
:

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Check 2: Use Kirchhoffs current law at one of the
junctions.
70
The sum of the currents out of the junction is:
268.6 + 77.2 =345.8 mA..
The current into the junction is equal to the current
out of the junction. Therefore, the solution checks.

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Superposition Theorem
The total current in any part of a linear circuit equals
the algebraic sum of the currents produced by each
source separately.



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When there exist multiple energy sources,
the currents and voltages in the circuit can
be found as the algebraic sum of the
corresponding values obtained by assuming
only one source at a time, with all other
sources turned off:
A voltage source is treated as short circuit
so that V=0 .
A current source is treated as open circuit
so that I=0 .

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Find i1,i2,i3 using superposition theorem?

73
First turn the voltage source of 20V off (short-circuit with 0V), and get
Second turn the voltage source of 32V off and get

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The overall currents can then be found as the
algebraic sums of the corresponding values
obtained with one voltage source turned on at a
time.

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Thevenins Theorem
Any one-port (two-terminal) network of resistance
elements and energy sources is equivalent to an
ideal voltage source V
T
in series with a resistor R
T
,
where
V
T
is the open-circuit voltage of the network, and
R
T
is the equivalent resistance when all energy
sources are turned off (short-circuit for voltage
sources, open-circuit for current sources).

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Use Thevenins Theorem to draw the Thevenin
equivalent circuit and calculate the current flowing
through the resistor R6 in the Figure below ?

76
Remove R6 from the circuit to give a break between A
and B.

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77
Determine the voltage dropped across the break AB (VAB = VT)
The voltage supplies are connected in opposite polarity so the current
coming from the positive terminal is flowing in opposite directions. As a
result of this the voltages subtract. The total resistance is the sum of the
resistors R1 and R2 in series.

I = V/R = (24-6) /12 = 1.5Amps
VT = I R2 = (1.5 x 8W) = 12 Volts
Replace voltage sources with their internal resistance, which for an ideal
voltage source is 0W i.e a short circuit wire.

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78
Calculate the resistance looking into the break, RT (also called ZT)
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 so R = 2.67W
ZT=2.67+4=6.67

Current through R6 = I = VT/Rtotal
= 12/(6.67 + 6) = 0.94 Amps



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Nortons Theorem
Norton's Theorem can be thought of as the opposite to
"Thevenins Theorem", in that Thevenin reduces his circuit
down to a single resistance in series with a single voltage.
Norton on the other hand reduces his circuit down to a single
resistance in parallel with a constant current source.
Nortons Theorem states that "Any linear circuit containing
several energy sources and resistances can be replaced by a
single Constant Current generator in parallel with a Single
Resistor".
As far as the load resistance, R
L
is concerned this single
resistance, R
S
is the value of the resistance looking back into
the network with all the current sources open circuited and I
S
is
the short circuit current at the output terminals as shown
below.
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80
Nortons equivalent circuit
The value of this "constant current" is one which
would flow if the two output terminals where shorted
together while the source resistance would be
measured looking back into the terminals, (the same
as Thevenin).

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Find the current flowing in the 40 load resistor using Nortons
theorem?

81
remove the centre 40 load resistor and short out the terminals A
and B.

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When the terminals A and B are shorted together the two resistors
are connected in parallel across their two respective voltage
sources and the currents flowing through each resistor as well as
the total short circuit current can now be calculated as:

82
If we short-out the two voltage sources and open circuit terminals
A and B, the two resistors are now effectively connected together
in parallel. The value of the internal resistor Rs is found by
calculating the total resistance at the terminals A and B giving us
the following circuit.

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83
. Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs).
Having found both the short circuit current, Is and equivalent internal
resistance, Rs this then gives us the following Nortons equivalent
circuit.

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Nortons equivalent circuit:

84
but we now have to solve with the original 40 load resistor
connected across terminals A and B as shown below.

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85
Then the current flowing in the 40 load resistor can be found as:

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Nortons Theorem Summary
The basic procedure for solving a circuit using
Nortons Theorem is as follows:
1. Remove the load resistor R
L
or component
concerned.
2. Find R
S
by shorting all voltage sources or by
open circuiting all the current sources.
3. Find I
S
by placing a shorting link on the output
terminals A and B.
4. Find the current flowing through the load
resistor R
L.

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Reciprocity Theorem
if an emf E in one branch of a reciprocal network
produces a current I in another, then if the emf E
is moved from the first to the second branch, it will
cause the same current in the first branch, where
the emf has been replaced by a short circuit. We
shall see that any network composed of linear,
bilateral elements (such as R, L and C) is
reciprocal.
voltages and currents at different points in the
network can be interchanged.
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Module III
Alternating Current Circuits

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89
Introduction: AC
It can be produced directly from
generators
It can be controlled by a wide range of
components eg resistors,capacitors and
inductors.
The max voltage can be changed easily
using a transformer
The frequency of the AC can be used for
timing

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90
AC Current

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A.C. Waveform
91

e
t
v
V
max
waveform the of frequency the is
2
f
f
t sin V v
max
t = e
e =

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How AC is Generated

92
X
N
S
|
f

v
90
0

180
0

270
0

360
0


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Advantages of AC Current
The single greatest advantage of
alternating current is that AC current can
be transformed and DC current cannot be
transformed.
This allows high-voltage electrical power
to be distributed with smaller wires and
lower amperage.
The electrical power is then transformed to
a lower voltage where it is needed.

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AC Sources and Phasors
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AC Circuits - Resistors
96

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AC Circuits - Resistors
The resistor voltage v
R
is given by

where V
R
is the peak or maximum voltage.
The current through the resistor is


where I
R
= V
R
/R is the peak current.

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AC Circuits - Resistors
99

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AC Circuits - Capacitors
100

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AC Circuits - Capacitors

The AC current to and from a capacitor
leads the capacitor voltage by /2 rad,
or 90.
The capacitive reactance X
C
is defined
as

The units of reactance, like those of
resistance, are ohms.

101

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102
Reactance relates the peak voltage
V
C
and current I
C
:










NOTE: Reactance differs from resistance in that it
does not relate the instantaneous capacitor
voltage and current because they are out of
phase. That is, v
C
i
C
X
C
.

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Phasor Diagram
103

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AC Circuits - Inductors

104
The AC current through an inductor lags the
inductor voltage by /2 rad, or 90.

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Inductive Reactance
105
The inductive reactance X
L
is defined as


Reactance relates the peak voltage V
L
and current I
L
:
NOTE: Reactance differs from resistance in that it
does not relate the instantaneous inductor voltage
and current because they are out of phase. That is,
v
L
i
L
X
L
.

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Phasor Diagram: inductive circuits
106

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Peak, Average and RMS values for
alternating currents
Maximum value of current is called peak
value.
Average or Mean value of AC is
expressed by that steady current(dc)
which transfers across any circuit the
same charge as is transferred by that AC
during a given time.
Iavg=(I1+I2+I3.+In)/n
107

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108
The average voltage in ac is zero since
there is an equal amount of positive and
negative voltage.
Same for current
The average value of the power used in ac
is half that of the peak power

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RMS Values
Since voltage and current are always
changing we need some way of averaging
out their effect.
We use r.m.s values (root-mean-square)
The r.m.s values are the DC values which
give the same average power output.


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RMS Values
AC Voltage DC Voltage
(with same
power output)
V
rms

V
max


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RMS Values
2
max
V
V
rms
=
2
max
I
I
rms
=

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Power calculation
The instantaneous power dissipated in a
component is a product of the instantaneous
voltage and the instantaneous current.
p = vi
In a resistive circuit the voltage and current are
in phase calculation of p is straightforward.
In reactive circuits, there will normally be some
phase shift between v and i, and calculating the
power becomes more complicated.

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Power in Resistive Components
Suppose a voltage v = Vp sin et is applied across a resistance
R. The resultant current i will be



The result power p will be



The average value of (1 - cos 2et) is 1, so




where V and I are the r.m.s. voltage and current
t I
R
t V
R
v
i
P
P
e
e
sin
sin
= = =
)
2
2 cos 1
( ) (sin sin sin
2
t
I V t I V t I t V vi p
P P P P P P
e
e e e

= = = =
VI
I V
I V P
P P
P P
= = =
2 2 2
1
Power Average

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Relationship between v, i and p in a
resistor

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Power in Capacitors
From our discussion of capacitors we know that the
current leads the voltage by 90. Therefore, if a voltage v
= Vp sin et is applied across a capacitance C, the
current will be given by i = Ip cos et
Then






The average power is zero
)
2
2 sin
(
) cos (sin
cos sin
t
I V
t t I V
t I t V
vi p
P P
P P
P P
e
e e
e e
=
=
=
=

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Relationship between v, i and p in a
capacitor


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Power in Inductors
From our discussion of inductors we know that
the current lags the voltage by 90. Therefore, if
a voltage v = Vp sin et is applied across an
inductance L, the current will be given by i = -Ip
cos et
Therefore



Again the average power is zero


)
2
2 sin
(
) cos (sin
cos sin
t
I V
t t I V
t I t V
vi p
P P
P P
P P
e
e e
e e
=
=
=
=

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Relationship between v, i and p in an
inductor:


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Circuit with Resistance and Reactance
When a sinusoidal voltage v = Vp sin et is applied
across a circuit with resistance and reactance, the
current will be of the general form i = Ip sin (et - |)
Therefore, the instantaneous power, p is given
by
) 2 cos(
2
1
cos
2
1
)} 2 cos( {cos
2
1
) sin( sin
| e |
| e |
| e e
=
=
=
=
t I V I V p
t I V
t I t V
vi p
P P P P
P P
P P

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) 2 cos(
2
1
cos
2
1
| e | = t I V I V p
P P P P
The expression for p has two components
The second part oscillates at 2e and has an average
value of zero over a complete cycle
this is the power that is stored in the reactive elements
and then returned to the circuit within each cycle
The first part represents the power dissipated in resistive
components. Average power dissipation is
| | | cos ) (cos
2 2
) (cos
2
1
VI
I V
I V P
P P
P P
= = =

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The average power dissipation given by


is termed the active power in the circuit and is
measured in watts (W)
The product of the r.m.s. voltage and current VI
is termed the apparent power, S. To avoid
confusion this is given the units of volt amperes
(VA)


| | cos ) (cos
2
1
VI I V P
P P
= =

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From the above discussion it is clear that


In other words, the active power is the apparent
power times the cosine of the phase angle.
This cosine is referred to as the power factor

|
|
cos
cos
S
VI P
=
=
factor Power
amperes) volt (in power Apparent
watts) (in power Active
=
| cos factor Power = =
S
P

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Active and Reactive Power
When a circuit has resistive and reactive parts,
the resultant power has 2 parts:
The first is dissipated in the resistive element. This is
the active power, P
The second is stored and returned by the reactive
element. This is the reactive power, Q , which has
units of volt amperes reactive or var
While reactive power is not dissipated it does
have an effect on the system
for example, it increases the current that must be
supplied and increases losses with cables

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Consider an
RL circuit
the relationship
between the various
forms of power can
be illustrated using
a power triangle

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Therefore

Active Power P = VI cos | watts

Reactive Power Q = VI sin | var

Apparent Power S = VI VA

S
2
= P
2
+ Q
2

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Power Triangle

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Complex Power
| |
*
cos( ) sin( ) ,
,
= Real Power (W, kW, MW),
= Reactive Power (VAr, kVAr, MVAr),
= magnitude of power into electric and magnetic fields,
= Complex power (VA, kVA, MVA),
Power Factor
,
(pf
V I V I
S V I j
P jQ
V
P
Q
I
S
u u u u =
= +
=
+
) = cos ,
If current leads voltage then pf is leading,
If current lags voltage then pf is lagging.
|

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Complex Power, contd
2
1
Relationships between real, reactive, and complex power:
cos ,
sin 1 pf ,
Example: A load draws 100 kW with a leading pf of 0.85.
What are (power factor angle), and ?
-cos 0.85 31.8 ,
10
P S
Q S S
Q S
S
|
|
|
|

=
= =
= =
=
0kW
117.6 kVA,
0.85
117.6sin( 31.8 ) 62.0 kVAr. Q
=
= =

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Power factor
Power factor, p.f. = cos = P/S = R/Z
p.f. depends on the load type:
Purely resistive load, R , p.f. = 1
Inductive load, RL, p.f. <1 (lagging) and
Capacitive load, RC, p.f. > 1 (leading)
Most of the loads are inductive (lagging p.f.) and
must be corrected until p.f. approximately
become unity (p.f. = 1) using capacitor.
Power factor is leading or lagging, to denote whether current
leads or lags voltage



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impedance
In circuits containing reactive, as well as resistive
elements, the current is related to the applied voltage by
the impedance, Z of the arrangement

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The impedance of an LCR circuit is a
combination of both the resistance and the
reactance.
It is found by adding phasors:
( )
2 2
) (
C L
X X R Z + =
R
X
L

Z
X
C

X
L
-X
C


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reactance


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Resonance
At low f, VC>VL so VR (and therefore I) is small.
ie. Capacitors limit the current better at low
frequencies.
V
R

V
L

V
S

V
C


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At high f, V
L
>V
C
so V
R
(and therefore I) is small.
ie. Inductors limit the current better at high
frequencies.
V
R

V
L

V
S

V
C


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At resonance, V
L
=V
C
and they cancel each
other out. So V
S
=V
R
and if V
R
is at max
then I is at max.


V
R

V
L

V
S

V
C


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At resonance, a circuit has the maximum
possible current for a given supply voltage V
S
.
At resonance:
C L
C L
C L
X X
IX IX
V V
=
=
=

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Resonant Frequency
LC
f
LC
f
C f
L f
X X
C L
t
t
t
t
2
1
4
1
2
1
2
0
2
2
0
0
0
=
=
=
=

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Resonance In Electric Circuits

Any passive electric circuit will resonate if it has an inductor
and capacitor.

Resonance is characterized by the input voltage and current
being in phase. The driving point impedance (or admittance)
is completely real when this condition exists.

In this presentation we will consider (a) series resonance, and
(b) parallel resonance.

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Series Resonance
Consider the series RLC circuit shown below.
R L
C
+
_
I
V
V = V
M
Z0
The input impedance is given by:
1
( ) Z R j wL
wC
= +
The magnitude of the circuit current is;
2 2
| |
1
( )
m
V
I I
R wL
wC
= =
+

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Series Resonance
Resonance occurs when,
1
wL
wC
=
At resonance we designate w as w
o
and write;
1
o
w
LC
=
This is an important equation to remember. It applies to both series
And parallel resonant circuits.

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Series Resonance & Bandwidth
The magnitude of the current response for the series resonance circuit
is as shown below.
m
V
R
2
m
V
R
w
|I|
w
o
w
1
w
2

Bandwidth:
BW = w
BW
= w
2
w
1

Half power point

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The peak power delivered to the circuit is;
2
m
V
P
R
=
The so-called half-power is given when
2
m
V
I
R
=
.
We find the frequencies, w
1
and w
2
, at which this half-power
occurs by using;
2 2
1
2 ( ) R R wL
wC
= +

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After some insightful algebra one will find two frequencies at which
the previous equation is satisfied, they are:
2
1
1
2 2
R R
w
L L LC
| |
= + +
|
\ .
and
2
2
1
2 2
R R
w
L L LC
| |
= + +
|
\ .
The two half-power frequencies are related to the resonant frequency by
1 2 o
w ww =

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The bandwidth of the series resonant circuit is given by;
2 1 b
R
BW w w w
L
= = =
We define the Q (quality factor) of the circuit as;
1 1
o
o
w L L
Q
R w RC R C
| |
= = =
|
\ .
Using Q, we can write the bandwidth as;
o
w
BW
Q
=
These are all important relationships.

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Series Resonance
An Observation:
If Q > 10, one can safely use the approximation;
1 2
2 2
o o
BW BW
w w and w w = = +
These are useful approximations.

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Series Resonance
An Observation:
By using Q = w
o
L/R in the equations for w
1
and w
2
we have;
2
2
1 1
1
2 2
o
w w
Q Q
(
| |
(
= + +
|
(
\ .

2
1
1 1
1
2 2
o
w w
Q Q
(
| |
(
= + +
|
(
\ .

and

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Parallel Resonance
Consider the circuits shown below:
I
R L C
V
I
R
L
C V
(

+ + =
jwL
jwC
R
V I
1 1
(

+ + =
jwC
jwL R I V
1
Series Resonance

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(

+ + =
jwL
jwC
R
V I
1 1
(

+ + =
jwC
jwL R I V
1
We notice the above equations are the same provided:
V I
R
R
1
C L
If we make the inner-change,
then one equation becomes
the same as the other.

For such case, we say the one
circuit is the dual of the other.
Duality
If we make the inner-change,
then one equation becomes
the same as the other.

For such case, we say the one
circuit is the dual of the other.

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Parallel Resonance
R
be replaced R
1
L by replaced C
C by replaced L
What this means is that for all the equations we have
derived for the parallel resonant circuit, we can use
for the series resonant circuit provided we make
the substitutions:

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Parallel Resonance
Series Resonance
R
L w
Q
O
=
LC
w
O
1
=
LC
w
O
1
=
RC w Q
o
=
L
R
w w w BW
BW
= = = ) (
1 2
RC
w BW
BW
1
= =
w
2 1
, w w
(
(

+
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
LC L
R
L
R
w w
1
2 2
,
2
2 1

(
(

+
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
LC RC RC
w w
1
2
1
2
1
,
2
2 1

2 1
, w w
(
(

+ |
.
|

\
|
+ = 1
2
1
2
1
,
2
2 1
Q Q
w w w
o

(
(

+ |
.
|

\
|
+ = 1
2
1
2
1
,
2
2 1
Q Q
w w w
o


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Resonance
Example 1:
Determine the resonant frequency for the circuit below.
jwRC LC w
jwL LRC w
jwC
jwL R
jwC
R jwL
Z
N I
+
+
=
+ +
+
=
) 1 (
) (
1
)
1
(
2
2
At resonance, the phase angle of Z must be equal to zero.

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jwRC LC w
jwL LRC w
+
+
) 1 (
) (
2
2
Resonance
Analysis
For zero phase;
LC w
wRC
LCR w
wL
2 2
1 ( ) (
=

This gives;
1
2 2 2 2
= C R w LC w
or
) (
1
2 2
C R LC
w
o

=

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Parallel Resonance
Example 2:
First, R = 1/G = 1/(0.02) = 50 ohms.
Second, from
R
L w
Q
O
=
, we solve for L, knowing Q, R, and w
o
to
find L = 0.25 H.
Third, we can use
F
x R w
Q
C
O
100
50 000 , 10
50
= = =
A series RLC resonant circuit has a resonant frequency admittance of
2x10
-2
S(mohs). The Q of the circuit is 50, and the resonant frequency is
10,000 rad/sec. Calculate the values of R, L, and C. Find the half-power
frequencies and the bandwidth.

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Parallel Resonance Example 2: (continued)
Fourth: We can use
sec / 200
50
10 1
4
rad
x
Q
w
w
o
BW
= = =
and
Fifth: Use the approximations;
w
1
= w
o
- 0.5w
BW
= 10,000 100 = 9,900 rad/sec
w
2
= w
o
- 0.5w
BW
= 10,000 + 100 = 10,100 rad/sec

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The Q factor
A parameter Q is often defined to describe the sharpness of
resonance peaks in both mechanical and electrical oscillating
systems. Q is defined as
where U
max
is max energy stored in the system and AU is the
energy dissipated in one cycle
For RLC circuit, U
max
is (e.g.)
And losses only in R, namely
period
This gives
And for completeness, note

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Key Points
A sinusoidal voltage waveform can be described by
the equation
The voltage across a resistor is in phase with the
current, the voltage across an inductor leads the
current by 90, and the voltage across a capacitor lags
the current by 90
The reactance of an inductor XL = eL
The reactance of a capacitor XC = 1/eC
The relationship between current and voltage in
circuits containing reactance can be described by its
impedance
The use of impedance is simplified by the use of
complex notation
) ( sin | e + = t V v
p

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MODULE IV
Transformers

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A Transformer is a device that converts one AC voltage to another AC voltage at
the same frequency. It consists of one or more coil(s) of wire wrapped around a
common ferromagnetic core. These coils are usually not connected electrically
together. However, they are connected through the common magnetic flux
confined to the core.
Assuming that the transformer has at
least two windings, one of them
(Primary) is connected to a source
of AC power; the other (secondary)
is connected to the loads.
The invention of a transformer can be attributed to Faraday, who in 1831 used its
principle to demonstrate electromagnetic induction.

Russian engineer Yablochkov in 1876 invented a lighting system based on a set
of induction coils, which acted as a transformer.
Introduction

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Core form Shell form
Power transformers
Windings are wrapped around two
sides of a laminated square core.
Windings are wrapped around the
center leg of a laminated core.
Usually, windings are wrapped on top of each other to decrease flux leakage
and, therefore, increase efficiency.
Types

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construction
Lamination
types
Laminated steel cores
Toroidal steel cores
Efficiency of transformers with toroidal cores is usually higher.

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A power transformer connected to the output of a generator and used to step
its voltage up to the transmission level (110 kV and higher) is called a unit
transformer.

A transformer used at a substation to step the voltage from the transmission
level down to the distribution level (2.3 34.5 kV) is called a substation
transformer.

A transformer converting the distribution voltage down to the final level (110 V,
220 V, etc.) is called a distribution transformer.
In addition to power transformers, other types of transformers are used.
Power transformers used in power distribution systems are sometimes
referred as follows:
construction

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Ideal transformer
We consider a lossless transformer
with an input (primary) winding
having N
p
turns and a secondary
winding of N
s
turns.
The relationship between the voltage
applied to the primary winding v
p
(t)
and the voltage produced on the
secondary winding v
s
(t) is
( )
( )
p p
s s
v t N
a
v t N
= = (4.8.1)
Here a is the turn ratio of the transformer.

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The relationship between the primary i
p
(t) and secondary i
s
(t) currents is
( )
1
( )
p
s
i t
i t a
= (4.9.1)
In the phasor notation:
p
s
a =
V
V
1
p
s
a
=
I
I
(4.9.2)
(4.9.3)
The phase angles of primary and secondary voltages are the same. The phase
angles of primary and secondary currents are the same also. The ideal
transformer changes magnitudes of voltages and currents but not their angles.

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One windings terminal is usually marked by a dot
used to determine the polarity of voltages and
currents.
If the voltage is positive at the dotted end of the primary winding at some
moment of time, the voltage at the dotted end of the secondary winding will also
be positive at the same time instance.

If the primary current flows into the dotted end of the primary winding, the
secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of the secondary winding.

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Power in an ideal transformer
Assuming that u
p
and u
s
are the angles between voltages and currents on the
primary and secondary windings respectively, the power supplied to the
transformer by the primary circuit is:
cos
in p p p
P V I u = (4.11.1)
The power supplied to the output circuits is
cos
out s s s
P V I u = (4.11.2)
Since ideal transformers do not affect angles between voltages and currents:
p s
u u u = = (4.11.3)
Both windings of an ideal transformer have the same power factor.

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Since for an ideal transformer the following holds:
;
p
s s p
V
V I aI
a
= =
Therefore:
cos cos cos
out i
p
s s p p p n
V
V I aI P V I
a
P u u u = = = =
The output power of an ideal transformer equals to its input power to be
expected since assumed no loss. Similarly, for reactive and apparent powers:
sin sin
out s s p p in
Q V I V I Q u u = = =
out s s p p in
S V I V I S = = =
(4.12.1)
(4.12.2)
(4.12.3)
(4.12.4)

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Impedance transformation
The impedance is defined as a following ratio of phasors:
L L L
Z = V I
A transformer changes voltages and currents and, therefore, an apparent
impedance of the load that is given by
L s s
Z = V I
The apparent impedance of the primary
circuit is:
'
L p p
Z = V I
which is
2 2
'
p
s s
p s s
L L
a
a
a
Z a Z = = = =
V
V V
I I I
It is possible to match magnitudes of impedances (load and a transmission line) by
selecting a transformer with the proper turn ratio.
(4.13.1)
(4.13.2)
(4.13.3)
(4.13.4)

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Analysis of circuits containing ideal transformers
A simple method to analyze a circuit containing an ideal transformer is by
replacing the portion of the circuit on one side of the transformer by an
equivalent circuit with the same terminal characteristics.

Next, we exclude the transformer from the circuit and solve it for voltages
and currents.

The solutions obtained for the portion of the circuit that was not replaced
will be the correct values of voltages and currents of the original circuit.

Finally, the voltages and currents on the other side of the transformer (in
the original circuit) can be found by considering the transformers turn ratio.

This process is called referring of transformers sides.

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Example 4.1: A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V 60-Hz generator
that is connected to the load Z
load
= 4 + j3 O through the transmission line with
Z
line
= 0.18 + j0.24 O. a) What is the voltage at the load? What are the
transmission line losses? b) If a 1:10 step up transformer and a 10:1 step down
transformer are placed at the generator and the load ends of the transmission
line respectively, what are the new load voltage and the new transmission line
losses?
a) Here:
480 0
0.18 0
90.8 37
.24 4 3
480 0
5.29 37
.8
.8
G line load
line load
A
j j
= = =
+
Z
=
+ +
Z
+
Z
= =
Z

V
I I I
Z Z

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Therefore, the load voltage:
( ) ( )( )
90.8 37.8 (4 3) 90.8 37.8 5 36.9 454 0.9
load load load
j V = = Z + = Z Z = Z V I Z
The line losses are:
2 2
90.8 0.18 1484
loss line line
P I R W = = =
b) We will
1) eliminate transformer T
2

by referring the load
over to the transmission
lines voltage level.
2) Eliminate transformer T
1

by referring the
transmission lines
elements and the equivalent load at the transmission lines voltage over to the
source side.

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The load impedance when referred to the transmission line (while the
transformer T
2
is eliminated) is:
( )
2
' 2
2
10
4 3 400 300
1
load load
a j j
| |
= = + = +
|
\ .
Z Z
The total impedance on the
transmission line level is
'
400.18 300.24
500.3 36.88
eq line load
j
= +
= +
= Z O
Z Z Z
The total impedance is now referred across T
1
to the sources voltage level:
( )
2
' 2
1
1
500.3 36.88 5.003 36.88
10
eq eq
a
| |
= = Z = Z O
|
\ .
Z Z

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The generators current is
'
480 0
5.003 36.88
95.94 36.88
G
eq
A
Z
= =
Z
= Z
V
I
Z
Knowing transformers turn ratios, we
can determine line and load currents:
( )
1
0.1 95.94 36.88 9.594 36.88
line G
a A = = Z = Z I I
( )
2
10 9.594 36.88 95.94 36.88
load line
a A = = Z = Z I I
Therefore, the load voltage is:
( )( )
95.94 36.88 5 36.87 479.7 0.01
load load load
V = = Z Z = Z V I Z
The losses in the line are:
2 2
9.594 0.18 16.7
loss line line
P I R W = = =
Note: transmission line losses are reduced by a factor nearly 90, the load voltage is
much closer to the generators voltage effects of increasing the lines voltage.

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Real transformers approximate ideal ones to some degree.
The basis transformer operation can
be derived from Faradays law:
ind
d
e
dt

= (4.19.1)
Here is the flux linkage in the coil
across which the voltage is induced:
1
N
i
i
|
=
=
(4.19.2)
where |
I
is the flux passing through the i
th
turn in a coil slightly different for different
turns. However, we may use an average flux per turn in the coil having N turns:
Therefore:
N | =
ind
d
e N
dt
|
=
(4.19.3)
(4.19.4)
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

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If the source voltage v
p
(t) is applied to the primary winding, the average flux in the
primary winding will be:
1
( )
p
p
v t dt
N
| =
}
(4.20.1)
A portion of the flux produced in
the primary coil passes through
the secondary coil (mutual flux);
the rest is lost (leakage flux):
p m Lp
| | | = + (4.20.2)
average primary flux mutual flux
Similarly, for the secondary coil:
s m Ls
| | | = + (4.20.3)
Average secondary flux
The voltage ratio across a real transformer

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From the Faradays law, the primary coils voltage is:
( ) ( ) ( )
p Lp
m
p p p p p Lp
d d
d
v t N N N e t e t
dt dt dt
| |
|
= = + = +
The secondary coils voltage is:
( ) ( ) ( )
s m Ls
s s s s s Ls
d d d
v t N N N e t e t
dt dt dt
| | |
= = + = +
(4.21.1)
(4.21.2)
The primary and secondary voltages due to the mutual flux are:
( )
m
p p
d
e t N
dt
|
=
( )
Ls
s s
d
e t N
dt
|
=
(4.21.3)
(4.21.4)
Combining the last two equations:
( )
( )
p
m s
p s
e t
d e t
N dt N
|
= = (4.21.5)

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Therefore:
( )
( )
p p
s s
e t N
a
e t N
= = (4.22.1)
That is, the ratio of the primary voltage to the secondary voltage both caused by
the mutual flux is equal to the turns ratio of the transformer.
For well-designed transformers:
;
m Lp m Ls
| | | |
Therefore, the following approximation normally holds:
( )
( )
p p
s s
v t N
a
v t N
~ ~
(4.22.2)
(4.22.3)

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Even when no load is connected to the secondary coil of the transformer, a current
will flow in the primary coil. This current consists of:
1. The magnetization current i
m
needed to produce the flux in the core;
2. The core-loss current i
h+e
hysteresis and eddy current losses.
Flux causing the
magnetization current
Typical magnetization curve
The magnetization current in a real transformer

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Ignoring flux leakage and assuming time-harmonic primary voltage, the average
flux is:
| |
1 1
( ) cos sin
m
p m
p p p
V
v t dt V tdt t Wb
N N N
| e e
e
= = =
} }
If the values of current are comparable to the flux they produce in the core, it is
possible to sketch a magnetization current. We observe:
1. Magnetization current is not sinusoidal: there are high frequency components;
2. Once saturation is reached, a small increase in flux requires a large increase
in magnetization current;
3. Magnetization current (its fundamental component) lags the voltage by 90
o
;
4. High-frequency components of the current may be large in saturation.
Assuming a sinusoidal flux in the core, the eddy currents will be largest when
flux passes zero.
(4.24.1)

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Core-loss current
Core-loss current is:
total excitation current in a transformer
1. Nonlinear due to nonlinear effects of hysteresis;
2. In phase with the voltage.
The total no-load current in the core is called the excitation current of the
transformer:
ex m h e
i i i
+
= +
(4.25.1)

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If a load is connected to the secondary coil, there will be a current flowing
through it.
A current flowing into the dotted end
of a winding produces a positive
magnetomotive force F:
p p p
F N i =
s s s
F N i =
(4.26.1)
(4.26.2)
The net magnetomotive force in the core
net p p s s
F N i N i | = = 9
where 9 is the reluctance of the transformer core. For well-designed transformer
cores, the reluctance is very small if the core is not saturated. Therefore:
0
net p p s s
F N i N i = ~
(4.26.3)
(4.26.4)
The current ratio on a transformer

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The last approximation is valid for well-designed unsaturated cores. Therefore:
1
p
s
p
s
p s
p
s
i
N
i N a
N i N i ~ ~ = (4.27.1)
Magnetization curve of
an ideal transformer
An ideal transformer (unlike the real one) can be
characterized as follows:

1. The core has no hysteresis or eddy currents.
2. The magnetization curve is
3. The leakage flux in the core is zero.
4. The resistance of the windings is zero.

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To model a real transformer accurately, we need to account
for the following losses:

1.Copper losses resistive heating in the windings: I
2
R.
2.Eddy current losses resistive heating in the core:
proportional to the square of voltage applied to the
transformer.
3.Hysteresis losses energy needed to rearrange
magnetic domains in the core: nonlinear function of the
voltage applied to the transformer.
4.Leakage flux flux that escapes from the core and flux
that passes through one winding only.
The transformers equivalent circuit

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Copper losses are modeled
by the resistors R
p
and R
s
.
Leakage flux in a primary
winding produces the
voltage:
( )
Lp
Lp p
d
e t N
dt
|
= (4.29.1)
Since much of the leakage flux pass through air, and air has a constant reluctance
that is much higher than the core reluctance, the primary coils leakage flux is:
Lp p p
N i | =P
permeance of flux path
Therefore:
( )
2
( )
p
Lp p p p p
di
d
e t N N i N
dt dt
= = P P
(4.29.2)
(4.29.3)
The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer

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Recognizing that the self-inductance of the primary coil is
2
p p
L N = P
The induced voltages are:
( )
p
Lp p
di
e t L
dt
=
( )
s
Ls s
di
e t L
dt
=
(4.30.1)
(4.30.2)
(4.30.3)
Primary coil:
Secondary coil:
The leakage flux can be modeled by primary and secondary inductors.
The magnetization current can be modeled by a reactance X
M
connected across
the primary voltage source.
The core-loss current can be modeled by a resistance R
C
connected across the
primary voltage source.
Both currents are nonlinear; therefore, X
M
and R
C
are just approximations.

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The transformers
equivalent circuit
However, the exact circuit is not
very practical.
Therefore, the equivalent circuit is
usually referred to the primary side or
the secondary side of the transformer.
Equivalent circuit of the transformer
referred to its primary side.
Equivalent circuit of the transformer
referred to its secondary side.

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For many practical applications,
approximate models of
transformers are used.
Referred to the primary side.
Without an excitation branch
referred to the primary side.
Referred to the secondary
side.
Without an excitation branch
referred to the secondary side.
The values of components of the
transformer model can be
determined experimentally by an
open-circuit test or by a short-circuit
test.
Approximate equivalent circuit of a transformer

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The open-circuit test.
Full line voltage is applied to the primary
side of the transformer. The input voltage,
current, and power are measured.
From this information, the power factor of the input current and the magnitude and
the angle of the excitation impedance can be determined.
To evaluate R
C
and X
M
, we determine the conductance of the core-loss resistor is:
1
C
C
G
R
=
(4.33.1)
The susceptance of the magnetizing inductor is:
1
M
M
B
X
= (4.33.2)
Determining the values of components

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1 1
E C M
C M
Y G jB j
R X
= =
oc
E
oc
I
Y
V
=
Since both elements are in parallel, their admittances add. Therefore, the total
excitation admittance is:
(4.34.1)
The magnitude of the excitation admittance in the open-circuit test is:
The angle of the admittance in the open-circuit test can be found from the circuit
power factor (PF):
cos
oc
oc oc
P
PF
V I
u = =
(4.34.2)
(4.34.3)

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In real transformers, the power factor is always lagging, so the angle of the current
always lags the angle of the voltage by u degrees. The admittance is:
1
cos
oc oc
E
oc oc
I I
Y PF
V V
u

= Z = Z
(4.35.1)
Therefore, it is possible to determine values of R
C
and X
M
in the open-circuit test.

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Since the input voltage is low, the current flowing through the excitation branch is
negligible; therefore, all the voltage drop in the transformer is due to the series
elements in the circuit. The magnitude of the series impedance referred to the
primary side of the transformer is:
SC
SE
SC
V
Z
I
=
The short-circuit test.
Fairly low input voltage is applied to the
primary side of the transformer. This voltage
is adjusted until the current in the secondary
winding equals to its rated value.
The input voltage, current, and power are again measured.
(4.36.1)
The power factor of the current is given by:
cos
SC
SC SC
P
PF
V I
u = = (4.36.2)

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0
SC SC
SE
SC SC
V V
Z
I I
u
u
Z
= = Z
Z
Therefore:
Since the serial impedance Z
SE
is equal to
( ) ( )
2 2
SE eq eq
SE p S p S
Z R jX
Z R a R j X a X
= +
= + + +
it is possible to determine the total series impedance referred to the primary side
of the transformer. However, there is no easy way to split the series impedance
into primary and secondary components.
The same tests can be performed on the secondary side of the transformer. The
results will yield the equivalent circuit impedances referred to the secondary
side of the transformer.
(4.37.1)
(4.37.2)
(4.37.3)

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Example 4.2: We need to determine the equivalent circuit impedances of a 20
kVA, 8000/240 V, 60 Hz transformer. The open-circuit and short-circuit tests led to
the following data:
V
OC
= 8000 V V
SC
= 489 V
I
OC
= 0.214 A I
SC
= 2.5 A
P
OC
= 400 W P
SC
= 240 W
The power factor during the open-circuit test is
400
cos 0.234
8000 0.214
OC
OC OC
P
PF lagging
V I
u = = = =

The excitation admittance is


1 1
0.214 1 1
cos cos 0.234 0.0000063 0.0000261
8000
OC
E
OC C M
I
Y PF j j
V R X

= Z = Z = =

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Determining the values of components: Example
Therefore:
1 1
159 ; 38.3
0.0000063 0.0000261
C M
R k X k = = O = = O
240
cos 0.196
489 2.5
SC
SC SC
P
PF lagging
V I
u = = = =

1
489
cos 78.7
2.5
38.4 192
SC
SE
SC
V
Z PF
I
j

= Z = Z
= + O
The power factor during the short-circuit test is
The series impedance is given by
Therefore:
38.3 ; 192
eq eq
R X = O = O
The equivalent circuit

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The per-unit system
actual value
Quantity per unit
base value of quantity
=

Another approach to solve circuits containing transformers is the per-unit system.
Impedance and voltage-level conversions are avoided. Also, machine and
transformer impedances fall within fairly narrow ranges for each type and
construction of device while the per-unit system is employed.
The voltages, currents, powers, impedances, and other
electrical quantities are measured as fractions of some base level instead of
conventional units.
(4.40.1)
Usually, two base quantities are selected to define a given per-unit system. Often,
such quantities are voltage and power (or apparent power). In a 1-phase system:
( )
2
, ,
base base base base base
base
base
base
base base
P Q or S V I
V
V
Z
I S
=
= =
(4.40.2)
(4.40.3)

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The per-unit system
base
base
base
I
Y
V
=
(4.41.1)
Ones the base values of P (or S) and V are selected, all other base values can
be computed form the above equations.
In a power system, a base apparent power and voltage are selected at the
specific point in the system. Note that a transformer has no effect on the
apparent power of the system, since the apparent power into a transformer
equals the apparent power out of a transformer. As a result, the base apparent
power remains constant everywhere in the power system.
On the other hand, voltage (and, therefore, a base voltage) changes when it
goes through a transformer according to its turn ratio. Therefore, the process
of referring quantities to a common voltage level is done automatically in the
per-unit system.

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The per-unit system: Example
Example 4.3: A simple power system is given by the circuit:
The generator is rated at 480 V and 10 kVA.
a) Find the base voltage, current, impedance, and apparent power at every
points in the power system;
b) Convert the system to its per-unit equivalent circuit;
c) Find the power supplied to the load in this system;
e) Find the power lost in the transmission line (Region 2).

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1
1
1
1
1
1
10 000
20.83
480
480
23.04
20.83
base
base
base
base
base
base
S
I A
V
V
Z
I







= = =
= = = O
a. In the generator region: V
base 1
= 480 V and S
base
= 10 kVA
The turns ratio of the transformer T
1
is a
1
= 0.1; therefore, the voltage in the
transmission line region is
1
2
1
480
4800
0.1
base
base
V
V V
a


= = =
The other base quantities are
The per-unit system: Example

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2
2
2
10
10 000
2.083
4800
4800
2304
2.083
base
base
base
S kVA
I A
Z



=

= =
= = O
The turns ratio of the transformer T
2
is a
2
= 20; therefore, the voltage in the
load region is
2
4800
240
20
base
base
V
V V
a
2
3
= = =
The other base quantities are

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10
10 000
41.67
240
240
5.76
41.67
base
base
base
S kVA
I A
Z
3
3
3
=

= =
= = O
,
480 0
1.0 0
480
G pu
V pu
Z
= = Z
b. To convert a power system to a per-unit system, each component must be
divided by its base value in its region. The generators per-unit voltage is
The transmission lines per-unit impedance is
,
20 60
0.0087 0.026
2304
line pu
j
Z j pu
+
= = +

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,
10 30
5.76
1.736 30
load pu
Z
pu

Z
=
= Z
The loads per-unit
impedance is
The per-unit
equivalent circuit
c. The current flowing in this per-unit power system is
,
1 0
0.569 30.6
0.0087 0.026 1.736 30
pu
pu
tot pu
V
I pu
Z j
Z
= = = Z
+ + Z

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2 2
,
0.569 1.503 0.487
load pu pu pu
P I R = = =
,
0.487 10 000 487
load load pu base
P P S W = = =
2 2
, ,
0.569 0.0087 0.00282
line pu pu line pu
P I R

= = =
Therefore, the per-unit power on the load is
The actual power on the load is
d. The per-unit power lost in the transmission line is
,
0.00282 10 000 8.2
line line pu base
P P S W = = = 2
The actual power lost in the transmission line

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When only one device (transformer or motor) is analyzed, its own ratings are used
as the basis for per-unit system. When considering a transformer in a per-unit
system, transformers characteristics will not vary much over a wide range of
voltages and powers. For example, the series resistance is usually from 0.02 to
0.1 pu; the magnetizing reactance is usually from 10 to 40 pu; the core-loss
resistance is usually from 50 to 200 pu. Also, the per-unit impedances of
synchronous and induction machines fall within relatively narrow ranges over quite
large size ranges.
If more than one transformer is present in a system, the system base voltage and
power can be chosen arbitrary. However, the entire system must have the same
base power, and the base voltages at various points in the system must be related
by the voltage ratios of the transformers.
System base quantities are commonly chosen to the base of the largest
component in the system.

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( ) ( )
( ) ( )
, 2 ,
, 2 ,
2
1
2 , 2 ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
base
pu base pu base
base
base
pu base pu base
base
base base
pu base pu base
base base
S
P Q S P Q S
S
V
V V
V
V S
R X Z R X Z
V S
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2 2
=
=
=
(4.49.1)
(4.49.2)
(4.49.3)
Per-unit values given to another base can be converted to the new base
either through an intermediate step (converting them to the actual
values) or directly as follows:

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Example 4.4: Sketch the appropriate per-unit equivalent circuit for the 8000/240 V, 60
Hz, 20 kVA transformer with R
c
= 159 kO, X
M
= 38.4 kO, R
eq
= 38.3 O, X
eq
= 192 O.
To convert the transformer to per-unit system, the primary circuit base impedance
needs to be found.
1 1
2 2
1
1
1
,
,
,
8 000 ; 20 000
8 000
3 200
20 000
38.4 192
0.012 0.06
3 200
159 000
49.7
3 200
00
12
3 200
base base
base
base
base
SE pu
C pu
M pu
V V S VA
V
Z
S
j
Z j pu
R pu
X pu




= =

= = = O

+
= = +


= =

38 4
= =


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Therefore, the per-unit equivalent circuit is shown below:

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Voltage regulation and efficiency
, , ,
, ,
100% 100%
s nl s fl p s fl
s fl s fl
V V V a V
VR
V V

= =
Since a real transformer contains series impedances, the transformers output
voltage varies with the load even if the input voltage is constant. To compare
transformers in this respect, the quantity called a full-load voltage regulation
(VR) is defined as follows:
In a per-unit system:
, , ,
, ,
100%
p pu s fl pu
s fl pu
V V
VR
V

=
(4.52.1)
(4.52.2)
Note, the VR of an ideal transformer is zero.
Where V
s,nl
and V
s,fl
are the secondary no load and full load voltages.

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The transformer phasor diagram
To determine the VR of a transformer, it is necessary to understand the voltage
drops within it. Usually, the effects of the excitation branch on transformer VR can
be ignored and, therefore, only the series impedances need to be considered. The
VR depends on the magnitude of the impedances and on the current phase angle.
A phasor diagram is often used in the VR determinations. The phasor voltage V
s

is assumed to be at 0
0
and all other voltages and currents are compared to it.
Considering the diagram and by applying the
Kirchhoffs voltage law, the primary voltage is:
p
s eq s eq s
V
V R I jX I
a
= + +
A transformer phasor diagram is a graphical
representation of this equation.
(4.53.1)

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A transformer operating at a lagging power factor:
It is seen that V
p
/a > V
s
, VR > 0
A transformer operating at
a unity power factor:
It is seen that VR > 0
A transformer operating at a
leading power factor:
If the secondary current is leading,
the secondary voltage can be higher
than the referred primary voltage;
VR < 0.
The transformer phasor diagram

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Considering the transformer equivalent circuit, we notice three types of losses:
The transformer efficiency
100% 100%
out out
in out loss
P P
P P P
q = =
+
cos
out s s s
P V I u =
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as:
Note: the same equation describes the efficiency of motors and generators.
1. Copper (I
2
R) losses are accounted for by the series resistance
2. Hysteresis losses are accounted for by the resistor R
c
.
3. Eddy current losses are accounted for by the resistor R
c
.
Since the output power is
The transformer efficiency is
cos
100%
cos
s s
Cu core s s
V I
P P V I
u
q
u
=
+ +
(4.55.1)
(4.55.2)
(4.55.3)

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The transformer efficiency: Example
Example 4.5: A 15 kVA, 2300/230 V transformer was tested to by open-circuit and
closed-circuit tests. The following data was obtained:
V
OC
= 2300 V V
SC
= 47 V
I
OC
= 0.21 A I
SC
= 6.0 A
P
OC
= 50 W P
SC
= 160 W
a. Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the high-voltage side.
b. Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the low-voltage side.
c. Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power factor, at 1.0
power factor, and at 0.8 leading power factor.
d. Plot the voltage regulation as load is increased from no load to full load at
power factors of 0.8 lagging, 1.0, and 0.8 leading.
e. What is the efficiency of the transformer at full load with a power factor of 0.8
lagging?

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1 1
50
cos cos 84
2300 0.21
oc
oc
oc oc
P
V I
u

= = =

0.21
84 84 0.0000 095 0.0000 908
2300
oc
E
oc
I
Y j S
V
= Z = Z =
a. The excitation branch values of the equivalent circuit can be determined as:
The excitation admittance is:
The elements of the excitation branch referred to the primary side are:
1
105
0.0000095
1
11
0.0000908
c
M
R k
X k
= = O
= = O
The transformer efficiency: Example

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From the short-circuit test data, the short-circuit impedance angle is
1 1
160
cos cos 55.4
47 6
SC
SC
SC SC
P
V I
u

= = =

The equivalent series impedance is thus


47
55.4 4.45 6.45
6
SC
SE SC
SC
V
Z j
I
u = Z = Z = + O
The series elements referred to
the primary winding are:
4.45 ; 6.45
eq eq
R X = O = O
The equivalent circuit

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b. To find the equivalent circuit referred to the low-voltage side, we need to divide
the impedance by a
2
. Since a = 10, the values will be:
1050 110 0.0445 0.0645
C M eq eq
R X R X = O = O = O = O
The equivalent circuit will be

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c. The full-load current on the secondary side of the transformer is
,
,
15 000
65.2
230
rated
S rated
S rated
S
I A
V


= = =
Since:
p
S eq S eq S
V
V R I jX I
a
= + +
At PF = 0.8 lagging, current
1
65.2 cos (0.8) 65.2 36.9
s
I A

= Z = Z
and ( ) ( )
230 0 0.0445 65.2 36.9 0.0645 65.2 36.9 234.85 0.40
p
V
j V
a
= Z + Z + Z = Z
The resulting voltage regulation is, therefore:
,
,
100%
234.85 230
100%
230
2.1%
p S fl
S fl
V a V
VR
V

=

=
=

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At PF = 1.0, current
1
65.2 cos (1.0) 65.2 0
s
I A

= Z = Z
and ( ) ( )
230 0 0.0445 65.2 0 0.0645 65.2 0 232.94 1.04
p
V
j V
a
= Z + Z + Z = Z
The resulting voltage regulation is, therefore:
,
,
232.94 230
100% 100% 1.28%
230
p S fl
S fl
V a V
VR
V


= = =

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At PF = 0.8 leading, current
1
65.2 cos (0.8) 65.2 36.9
s
I A

= Z = Z
and ( ) ( )
230 0 0.0445 65.2 36.9 0.0645 65.2 36.9 229.85 1.27
p
V
j V
a
= Z + Z + Z = Z
The resulting voltage regulation is, therefore:
,
,
229.85 230
100% 100% 0.062%
230
p S fl
S fl
V a V
VR
V


= = =

Amity School of Engineering & Technology

Similar computations can be
repeated for different values
of load current. As a result,
we can plot the voltage
regulation as a function of
load current for the three
Power Factors.

Amity School of Engineering & Technology

e. To find the efficiency of the transformer, first calculate its losses.
The copper losses are:
2 2
65.2 0.0445 189
Cu S eq
P I R W = = =
The core losses are:
( )
2
2
234.85
52.5
1050
p
core
C
V a
P W
R
= = =
The output power of the transformer at the given Power Factor is:
cos 230 65.2 cos36.9 12 000
out S S
P V I W u = = =
Therefore, the efficiency of the transformer is
100% 98.03%
out
Cu core out
P
P P P
q = =
+ +

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