Chapter 20

Fundamentals of
Machining/Orthogonal
Machining
(Part I)

EIN 3390 Manufacturing Processes
Spring, 2012

20.1 Introduction
Machining is the process of removing unwanted
material from a workpiece on the form of chip.

If the material is metal, then the process is often called metal
cutting or metal removal.

US industries annually spend well over $100 billion to perform
metal removal operations because the vast majority of
manufactured products require machining at some stage in
the production ranging from relatively rough or non-precision
work, such as cleanup of casting or forging, to high-precision
work involving tolerance of 0.0001 in. or less and high-quality
finishes.


20.2 Fundamentals
Variables in Processes of Metal Cutting:

Machine tool selected to perform the processes

Cutting tool (geometry and material)

Properties and parameters of workpiece

Cutting parameters (speed, feed, depth of cut)

Workpiece holding devices (fixture or jigs)


FIGURE 20-1
The
fundamental
inputs and
outputs to
machining
processes.
20.2 Fundamentals
7 basic chip formation processes:
1) shaping,
2) turning,
3) milling,
4) drilling,
5) sawing,
6) broaching, and
7) grinding (abrasive)


FIGURE 20-2 The
seven basic
machining
processes used in
chip formation.
20.2 Fundamentals
Responsibilities of Engineers

Design (with Material) engineer:
determine geometry and materials of products to
meet functional requirements

Manufacturing engineer based on material decision:

select machine tool
select cutting-tool materials
select workholder parameters,
select cutting parameters



20.2 Fundamentals
Cutting Parameters
Speed (V): the primary cutting motion, which relates the
velocity of the cutting tool relative to the workpiece.
For turning: V = p(D
1
N
s
) / 12
where, V feet per min, N
s
revolution per min (rpm), D
1

diameter of surface of workpiece, in.

Feed (f
r
): amount of material removed per revolution or
per pass of the tool over the workpiece. In turning, feed
is in inches per revolution, and the tool feeds parallel to
the rotational axis of the workpiece.

Depth of Cut (DOC): in turning, it is the distance that the
tool is plunged into the surface.
DOC = 0.5(D
1
D
2
) = d


FIGURE 20-3 Turning a
cylindrical workpiece on a
lathe requires you to
select the cutting speed,
feed, and depth of cut.
20.2 Fundamentals
Cutting Tool is
a most critical component
used to cut the work piece
selected before actual values for speed and feeds are
determined.

Figure 20-4 gives starting values of cutting speed, feed for a
given depth of cut, a given tool material, a given work
material, and a given process (turning).
Speed decreases as DOC or feed increase
Cutting speed increases with carbide and coated-
carbide tool material.



FIGURE 20-4 Examples of a table for selection
of speed and feed for turning. (Source: Metcuts
Machinability Data Handbook.)
AISI
for in
ISO
for mm
(for workpiece)
FIGURE 20-4 Examples of a table for selection
of speed and feed for turning. (Source: Metcuts
Machinability Data Handbook.)
AISI
for in
ISO
for mm
(for workpiece)
20.2 Fundamentals
To process different metals, the input parameters to the
machine tools must be determined.

For the lathe, the input parameters are DOC, feed, and the
rpm value of the spindle.
N
s
= 12V / (p D
1
) = ~ 3.8 V/ D
1


Most tables are arranged according to the process being
used, the material being machined, the hardness, and the
cutting-tool material.

The table in Figure 20-4 is used only for solving turning
problems in the book.




20.2 Fundamentals
DOC is determined by the amount of metal removed per
pass.
Roughing cuts are heavier than finishing cuts in terms of
DOC and feed, and are run at a lower surface speed.

Once cutting speed V has been selected, the next step is to
determine the spindle rpm, N
s
.

Use V, f
r
and DOC to estimate the metal removal rate for the
process, or MRR.
MRR = ~ 12V f
r
d
where d is DOC (depth of cutt).
MRR value is ranged from 0.1 to 600 in
3
/min.





20.2 Fundamentals
MRR can be used to estimate horsepower needed to
perform cut.
Another form of MRR is the ratio between the volume of
metal removed and the time needed to remove it.
MRR = (volume of cut)/T
m

Where T
m
cutting time in min. For turning,
T
m
= (L + allowance)/ (f
r
N
s
)
where L length of the cut. An allowance is usually
added to L to allow the tool to enter and exit the cut.

MRR and T
m
are commonly referred to as shop equations
and are fundamental as the processes.






20.2 Fundamentals

One of the most common machining process is
turning:
workpiece is rotated and cutting tool removes
material as it moves to the left after setting a
depth of cut.
A chip is produced which moves up the face of
the tool.


FIGURE 20-5 Relationship of
speed, feed, and depth of cut in
turning, boring, facing, and
cutoff operations typically done
on a lathe.
20.2 Fundamentals
Milling:
A multiple-tooth process.
Two feeds: the amount of metal an individual tooth
removes, called the feed per tooth f
t
, and the rate at
which the working table translates pass the rotating
tool, called the table feed rate f
m
in inch per min.
f
m
= f
t
n N
s
where n the number of teeth in a cutter, N
s
the rpm
value of the cutter.

Standard tables of speeds and feeds for milling provide
values for the recommended cutting speeds and feeds and
feeds per tooth, f
t
.





FIGURE 20-6 Basics
of milling processes
(slab, face, and end
milling) including
equations for cutting
time and metal
removal rate (MRR).
24.
FIGURE 20-7 Basics of the drilling (hole-making)
processes, including equations for cutting time and
metal removal rate (MRR).
FIGURE 20-9 (a) Basics of the
shaping process, including
equations for cutting time (Tm ) and
metal removal rate
(MRR). (b) The relationship of the
crank rpm Ns to the cutting velocity
V.
L
FIGURE 20-10 Operations and machines used for machining cylindrical surfaces.
FIGURE 20-10 Operations and machines used for machining cylindrical surfaces.
FIGURE 20-10 Operations and machines used for machining cylindrical surfaces.
FIGURE 20-10 Operations and machines used for machining cylindrical surfaces.
FIGURE 20-11 Operations
and machines used to
generate flat surfaces.
FIGURE 20-11 Operations
and machines used to
generate flat surfaces.
(pD
2
/4) f
m
(Chap 21)
(Chap 24)
(Chap 23)
f
m
= f
r
N
s
f
m
= f
t
N
s
n f
m
= f
r
N
s
N
s
= 12V/(p D
t
) N
s
= 12V/(p D
m
)
N
s
= 12V/(p D
d
)

V = (p D
t
N
s
)/12 V = (p D
m
N
s
)/12
V = (p D
d
N
s
)/12
T
m
= L / f
m
T
m
= L / f
m
T
m
= L / f
m
MRR = 12V f
r
d

MRR = w f
m
d

hp = MRR x HP
s
hp = MRR x HP
s
hp = MRR x HP
s

hp
m
= MRR x HP
s
/E
= F
c
V/33,000


hp
m
= MRR x HP
s
/E



hp
m
= MRR x HP
s
/E



D
t
= Diameter of workpiece in turning, inches
D
m
= Diameter of milling cutter, inches
D
d
= Diameter of drill, inches
d = Depth of cut, inches
E = Efficiency of spindle drive
F
m
= Feed rate, inches per minute
F
r
= Feed, inches per revolution
F
t
= Feed, inches per tooth
hp
m
= Horsepower at motor
MRR = metal removal rate, in
3
/min
hp = Horsepower at spindle
L = Length of cut, inches
n = Number of teeth in cutter
HP
s
= Unit power, horsepower per cubic inch per
minute, specific horsepower
N
s
= Revolution per minute of work or cutter
T
m
= Cutting time, minutes
V = Cutting speed, feet per minute
w = Width of cut, inches
F
c
= Cutting force, lbf
20.3 Energy and Power in Machining
Power requirements are important for proper
machine tool selection.
Cutting force data is used to:
properly design machine tools to maintain
desired tolerances.
determine if the workpiece can withstand
cutting forces without distortion.
Cutting Forces and Power
Primary cutting force F
c
: acts in the direction of the cutting
velocity vector. Generally the largest force and accounts for
99% of the power required by the process.
Feed Force F
f
:acts in the direction of tool feed. The force
is usually about 50% of F
c
but accounts for only a small
percentage of the power required because feed rates are
small compared to cutting rate.
Radial or Thrust Force F
r
: acts perpendicular to the
machined surface. in the direction of tool feed. The force is
typically about 50% of F
f
and contributes very little to the
power required because velocity in the radial direction is
negligible.
FIGURE 20-12 Oblique
machining has three measurable
components of forces acting on
the tool. The forces vary with
speed, depth of cut, and feed.
FIGURE 20-12 Oblique
machining has three measurable
components of forces acting on
the tool. The forces vary with
speed, depth of cut, and feed.
Cutting Forces and Power
Power = Force x Velocity
P = F
c

.
V (ft-lb/min)

Horsepower at spindle of machine is:
hp = (F
c
V) / 33,000

Unit, or specific, horsepower HP
s
:
HP
s
= hp / (MRR) (hp/in.
3
/min)
In turning, MRR =~ 12VF
r
d, then
HP
s
= F
c
/ (396,000F
r
d)
This is approximate power needed at the spindle to remove a
cubic inch of metal per minute.

Cutting Forces and Power
Specific Power
Used to estimate motor horsepower required
to perform a machining operation for a
given material.

Motor horsepower HP
m
HP
m
= [HP
s

.
MRR
.
(CF)]/E
Where E about 0.8, efficiency of machine to overcome friction
and inertia in machine and drive moving parts; MRR
maximum value is usually used; CF about 1.25, correction
factor, used to account for variation in cutting speed, feed, and
rake angle.

Cutting Forces and Power
Primary cutting force Fc:
Fc =~ [HP
s

.
MRR
.
33,000]/V
Used in analysis of deflection and vibration
problems in machining and in design of
workholding devices.
In general, increasing the speed, feed,
depth of cut, will increase power
required.
In general, increasing the speed doesnt
increase the cutting force Fc. Speed has
strong effect on tool life.

Cutting Forces and Power
Considering MRR =~ 12Vf
r
d (for turning),
then
d
max
=~ (HP
m

.
E)/[12
.
HP
s
V F
r
(CF)]

Total specific energy (cutting stiffness) U:

U = (F
c
V)/(V f
r
d) = F
c
/(f
r
.
d) =K
s
(turning)


HW for Chapter 20
Review Questions:
3, and 5 (page 557)

Problems (Page 558):
1. a, b, c, d
Please use fig. 20-4 to find the required speed
and feed rate.
3.