Ch2 Wireless Transmission

Wireless & Mobile Communications
Chapter 2: Wireless Transmission

Frequencies
Signals
Antennas
Signal propagation
Multiplexing
Spread spectrum
Modulation
Cellular systems
Spring 2003 ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission 2.2
Spectrum Allocation
VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency
LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
VHF = Very High Frequency

Relationship between frequency f and wave length :
= c/f
where c is the speed of light ~ 3x10
8
m/s
1 Mm
300 Hz
10 km
30 kHz
100 m
3 MHz
1 m
300 MHz
10 mm
30 GHz
100 m
3 THz
1 m
300 THz
visible light
VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared UV
optical transmission
coax cable twisted
pair
Frequencies Allocated for Mobile Communication
VHF & UHF ranges for mobile radio
allows for simple, small antennas for cars
deterministic propagation characteristics
less subject to weather conditions > more reliable connections
SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite
communication
small antennas with directed transmission
large bandwidths available
Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum
some systems planned up to EHF
limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall, etc.

Allocated Frequencies
ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages
frequency bands worldwide for harmonious usage (WRC -
World Radio Conferences)
Europe USA Japan
Mobile
phones
NMT 453-457MHz,
463-467MHz;
GSM 890-915MHz,
935-960MHz;
1710-1785MHz,
1805-1880MHz
AMPS, TDMA, CDMA
824-849MHz,
869-894MHz;
TDMA, CDMA, GSM
1850-1910MHz,
1930-1990MHz;
PDC
810-826MHz,
940-956MHz;
1429-1465MHz,
1477-1513MHz
Cordless
telephones
CT1+ 885-887MHz,
930-932MHz;
CT2
864-868MHz
DECT
1880-1900MHz
PACS 1850-1910MHz,
1930-1990MHz
PACS-UB 1910-1930MHz
PHS
1895-1918MHz
JCT
254-380MHz
Wireless
LANs
IEEE 802.11
2400-2483MHz
HIPERLAN 1
5176-5270MHz
IEEE 802.11
2400-2483MHz
IEEE 802.11
2471-2497MHz
Signals I
physical representation of data
function of time and location
signal parameters: parameters representing the value of
data
classification
continuous time/discrete time
continuous values/discrete values
analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift
sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:

s(t) = A
t
sin(2 t f
t
t +
t
)
Fourier Representation of Periodic Signals
) 2 cos( ) 2 sin(
2
1
) (
1 1
nft b nft a c t g
n
n
n
n
t t

=
=
+ + =
1
0
1
0
t t
ideal periodic signal
real composition
(based on harmonics)
Different representations of signals
amplitude (amplitude domain)
frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase in polar
coordinates)

Composite signals mapped into frequency domain using
Fourier transformation
Digital signals need
infinite frequencies for perfect representation
modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (->analog
signal!)
Signals II
f [Hz]
A [V]

I= M cos
Q = M sin

A [V]
t[s]
Antennas are used to radiate and receive EM waves (energy)
Antennas link this energy between the ether and a device
such as a transmission line (e.g., coaxial cable)
Antennas consist of one or several radiating elements
through which an electric current circulates
Types of antennas:
omnidirectional
directional
phased arrays
adaptive
optimal
Principal characteristics used to characterize an antenna are:
radiation pattern
directivity
gain
efficiency
Antennas
Isotropic Antennas
Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three
dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna
Real antennas always have directive effects (vertical and/or
horizontal)
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an
antenna
z y
x
ideal
isotropic
radiator
Omnidirectional Antennas: simple dipoles
Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles
with lengths /4, or Hertzian dipole: /2 (2 dipoles)
shape/size of antenna proportional to wavelength

Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

Gain: ratio of the maximum power in the direction of the
main lobe to the power of an isotropic radiator (with the
same average power)

side view (xy-plane)
x
y
side view (yz-plane)
z
y
top view (xz-plane)
x
z
simple
dipole
/4
/2
Directional Antennas
side view (xy-plane)
x
y
side view (yz-plane)
z
y
top view (xz-plane)
x
z
top view, 3 sector
x
z
top view, 6 sector
x
z
Often used for microwave connections (directed point to
point transmission) or base stations for mobile phones
(e.g., radio coverage of a valley or sectors for frequency
reuse)
directed
antenna
sectorized
antenna
Array Antennas
Grouping of 2 or more antennas to obtain radiating
characteristics that cannot be obtained from a single
element
Antenna diversity
switched diversity, selection diversity
receiver chooses antenna with largest output
diversity combining
combine output power to produce gain
cophasing needed to avoid cancellation
ground plane
+
/4 /2 /4
/2 /2
/2
+
Signal Propagation Ranges
distance
sender
transmission
detection
interference
Transmission range
communication possible
low error rate
Detection range
detection of the signal
possible
no communication
possible, high error rate
Interference range
signal may not be
detected
signal adds to the
background noise

Signal Propagation I
Radio wave propagation is affected by the following
mechanisms:
reflection at large obstacles
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges
reflection
scattering
diffraction
Signal Propagation II
The signal is also subject to degradation resulting from
propagation in the mobile radio environment. The principal
phenomena are:
pathloss due to distance covered by radio signal (frequency
dependent, less at low frequencies)
fading (frequency dependent, related to multipath propagation)
shadowing induced by obstacles in the path between the
transmitted and the receiver
shadowing
Signal Propagation III
Interference from other sources and noise will also impact signal
behavior:
co-channel (mobile users in adjacent cells using same frequency) and
adjacent (mobile users using frequencies adjacent to
transmission/reception frequency) channel interference
ambient noise from the radio transmitter components or other
electronic devices,
Propagation characteristics differ with the environment through
and over which radio waves travel. Several types of environments
can be identified (dense urban, urban, suburban and rural) and are
classified according to the following parameters:
terrain morphology
vegetation density
buildings: density and height
open areas
water surfaces
Pathloss I
Free-space pathloss:
To define free-space propagation, consider an isotropic source
consisting of a transmitter with a power P
t
W. At a distance d
from this source, the power transmitted is spread uniformly on
the surface of a sphere of radius d. The power density at the
distance d is then as follows:

S
r
= P
t
/4td
2

The power received by an antenna at a distance d from the
transmitter is then equal to:

P
r
= P
t
A
e
/4td
2

where A
e
is the effective area of the antenna.

Pathloss II
Noting that A
e
= G
r
/(4t/
2
)
where G
r
is the gain of the receiver
And if we replace the isotropic source by a transmitting
antenna with a gain G
t
the power received at a distance d of
the transmitter by a receiving antenna of gain G
r
becomes:

P
r
= P
t
G
r
G
t
/[4t(d/)|
2

In decibels the propagation pathloss (PL) is given by:

PL(db) = -10log
10
(Pr/Pt) = -10log
10
(G
r
G
t
/[4t(d/)|
2
)

This is for the ideal case and can only be applied sensibly to
satellite systems and short range LOS propagation.
Signal can take many different paths between sender and
receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction

Positive effects of multipath:
enables communication even when transmitter and receiver
are not in LOS conditions - allows radio waves effectively to
go through obstacles by getting around them thereby
increasing the radio coverage area
Multipath Propagation I
signal at sender
signal at receiver
Multipath Propagation II
Negative effects of multipath:
Time dispersion or delay spread: signal is dispersed over time due
signals coming over different paths of different lengths
Causes interference with neighboring symbols, this is referred
to as Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)

multipath spread (in secs) = (longest
1
shortest
2
)/c

For a 5s symbol duration a 1s delay spread means about a 20%
intersymbol overlap.
The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted (due to
reflections)
Distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts,
this is referred to as Rayleigh fading, due to the distribution of the fades.
It creates fast fluctuations of the received signal (fast fading).
Random frequency modulation due to Doppler shifts on the different
paths. Doppler shift is caused by the relative velocity of the receiver to
the transmitter, leads to a frequency variation of the received signal.
Effects of Mobility
Channel characteristics change over time and location
signal paths change
different delay variations of different signal parts
different phases of signal parts
quick changes in the power received (short term fading)

Additional changes in
distance to sender
obstacles further away
slow changes in the average power
received (long term fading)
short term fading
long term
fading
t
power
Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques are used to allow many users to
share a common transmission resource. In our case the
users are mobile and the transmission resource is the radio
spectrum. Sharing a common resource requires an access
mechanism that will control the multiplexing mechanism.
As in wireline systems, it is desirable to allow the
simultaneous transmission of information between two
users engaged in a connection. This is called duplexing.
Two types of duplexing exist:
Frequency division duplexing (FDD), whereby two frequency
channels are assigned to a connection, one channel for each
direction of transmission.
Time division duplexing (TDD), whereby two time slots (closely
placed in time for duplex effect) are assigned to a connection,
one slot for each direction of transmission.
Multiplexing in 3 dimensions
time (t) (TDM)
frequency (f) (FDM)
code (c) (CDM)

Goal: multiple use
of a shared medium

s
2

s
3

s
1

Multiplexing
f
t
c
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
k
1

f
t
c
f
t
c
channels k
i

Narrowband versus Wideband
These multiple access schemes can be grouped into two
categories:
Narrowband systems - the total spectrum is divided into a
large number of narrow radio bands that are shared.
Wideband systems - the total spectrum is used by each mobile
unit for both directions of transmission. Only applicable for
TDM and CDM.
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands
A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
orthogonal system
Advantages:
no dynamic coordination
necessary, i.e., sync. and
framing
works also for analog signals
low bit rates cheaper,
delay spread
Disadvantages:
waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
inflexible
guard bands
narrow filters
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
k
1

f
t
c
f
t
c
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
k
1

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of
time orthogonal system
Advantages:
only one carrier in the
medium at any time
throughput high - supports bursts
flexible multiple slots
no guard bands ?!
Disadvantages:
Framing and precise
synchronization
necessary
high bit rates
at each
Tx/Rx
f
Hybrid TDM/FDM
Combination of both methods
A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain
amount of time (slot).
Example: GSM, hops from one band to another each time
slot
Advantages:
better protection against
tapping (hopping among
frequencies)
protection against frequency
selective interference
Disadvantages:
Framing and
sync. required
t
c
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
k
1

Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
Each channel has a unique code
(not necessarily orthogonal)
All channels use the same spectrum
at the same time
Advantages:
bandwidth efficient
no coordination and synchronization
necessary
good protection against interference
and tapping
Disadvantages:
lower user data rates due to high
gains required to reduce
interference
more complex signal regeneration
2.19.1
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
k
1

f
t
c
Issues with CDM
CDM has a soft capacity. The more users the more codes that are
used. However as more codes are used the signal to interference
(S/I) ratio will drop and the bit error rate (BER) will go up for all
users.
CDM requires tight power control as it suffers from far-near effect.
In other words, a user close to the base station transmitting with
the same power as a user farther away will drown the latters
signal. All signals must have more or less equal power at the
receiver.
Rake receivers can be used to improve signal reception. Time
delayed versions (a chip or more delayed) of the signal (multipath
signals) can be collected and used to make bit level decisions.
Soft handoffs can be used. Mobiles can switch base stations
without switching carriers. Two base stations receive the mobile
signal and the mobile is receiving from two base stations (one of
the rake receivers is used to listen to other signals).
Burst transmission - reduces interference
Types of CDM I
Two types exist:
Direct Sequence CDM (DS-CDM)
spreads the narrowband user signal (Rbps) over the full spectrum by
multiplying it by a very wide bandwidth signal (W). This is done by
taking every bit in the user stream and replacing it with a pseudonoise
(PN) code (a long bit sequence called the chip rate). The codes are
orthogonal (or approx.. orthogonal).
This results in a processing gain G = W/R (chips/bit). The higher G the
better the system performance as the lower the interference. G
2

indicates the number of possible codes. Not all of the codes are
orthogonal.
Frequency
Time
Code
CDMA
Types of CDM II
Frequency hopping CDM (FH-CDM)
FH-CDM is based on a narrowband FDM system in which an individual
users transmission is spread out over a number of channels over time
(the channel choice is varied in a pseudorandom fashion). If the carrier
is changed every symbol then it is referred to as a fast FH system, if it
is changed every few symbols it is a slow FH system.

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
Orthogonality and Codes
An m-bit PN generator generates N=2
m
- 1 different codes.
Out of these codes only m codes are orthogonal -> zero
cross correlation.
For example a 3 bit shift register circuit shown below
generates N=7 codes.
+
1 2 3
Mod2 Adder (1+0=1, 0+1=1, 0+0=0, 1+1=0)
Initial State:
1 1
1
0 1
1
1
0 1
0 1
0 0
0
1
1
0 0
1 1 0
Orthogonal Codes
A pair of codes is said to be orthogonal if the cross correlation is
zero: R
xy
(0) = 0 .
For two m-bit codes: x
1
,x
2
,x
3
,...,x
m
and y
1
,y
2
,y
3
,...,y
m
:

For example: x = 0011 and y = 0110. Replace 0 with -1, 1 stays as is.
Then:
x = -1 -1 1 1
y = -1 1 1 -1
-----------------
R
xy
(0) = 1 -1 +1 -1 = 0

Example of an Orthogonal Code: Walsh Codes
In 1923 J.L. Walsh introduced a complete set of orthogonal
codes. To generate a Walsh code the following two steps
must be followed:
Step 1: represent a NxN matrix as four quadrants (start off with
2x2)
Step 2: make the first, second and third quadrants indentical
and invert the fourth

b
b
b
b
=
1 1
1 0
or
0
0
0 1
2 codes: 11 and 10 2 codes: 00 and 01
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
=
Code 1
Code 2
or
1 1
1 0
1 1
1 0
1 1
1 0
0 0
0 1
0 0
0 1
0 0
0 1
0 0
0 1
1 1
1 0
Code 1
Code 2
Code 3
Code 4
Modulation
Digital modulation
digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
Analog modulation
shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio
carrier
Motivation
smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
Frequency Division Multiplexing
medium characteristics
Basic schemes
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
Modulation and Demodulation
synchronization
decision
digital
data
analog
demodulation
radio
carrier
analog
baseband
signal
101101001
radio receiver
digital
modulation
digital
data
analog
modulation
radio
carrier
analog
baseband
signal
101101001
radio transmitter
Digital Modulation
Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
very simple
low bandwidth requirements
very susceptible to interference

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
needs larger bandwidth

Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
more complex
robust against interference
1 0 1
t
1 0 1
t
1 0 1
t
Advanced Frequency Shift Keying
bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance
between the carrier frequencies
special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts
MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)
bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each
bit is doubled
depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower
frequency, original or inverted is chosen
the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the
other
even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-
pass filter GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM
Example of MSK
data
even bits
odd bits
1 1 1 1 0 0 0
t
low
frequency
high
frequency
MSK
signal
bit
even 0 1 0 1
odd 0 0 1 1
signal h n n h
value - - + +
h: high frequency
n: low frequency
+: original signal
-: inverted signal
No phase shifts!
Advanced Phase Shift Keying
BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying):
bit value 0: sine wave
bit value 1: inverted sine wave
very simple PSK
low spectral efficiency
robust, used e.g. in satellite systems
QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift
Keying):
2 bits coded as one symbol
symbol determines shift of sine wave
needs less bandwidth compared to
BPSK
more complex
Often also transmission of relative,
not absolute phase shift: DQPSK -
Differential QPSK (IS-136, PACS,
PHS)

11 10 00 01
Q
I
0 1
Q
I
11
01
10
00
A
t
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): combines
amplitude and phase modulation
it is possible to code n bits using one symbol
2
n
discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK
bit error rate increases with n, but less errors compared to
comparable PSK schemes

Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)
Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the
same phase, but different amplitude.
0000 and 1000 have different phase,
but same amplitude.
used in standard 9600 bit/s
modems
0000
0001
0011
1000
Q
I
0010
Spread spectrum technology: CDM
Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading
can wipe out narrow band signals for duration of the
interference
Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band
signal using a special code
protection against narrow band interference

protection against narrowband interference
Side effects:
coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
tap-proof
Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

detection at
receiver
interference spread
signal
signal
spread
interference
f f
power power
Effects of spreading and interference
P
f
i)
P
f
ii)
sender
P
f
iii)
P
f
iv)
receiver
f
v)
user signal
broadband interference
narrowband interference
2.28.1
P
Spreading and frequency selective fading
frequency
channel
quality
1
2
3
4
5 6
narrow band
signal
guard space
2
2
2
2
2

frequency
channel
quality
1
spread
spectrum
2.29.1
narrowband channels
spread spectrum channels
Spring 2003 ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission 2.45 2.30.1
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) I
XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping
sequence)
many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the
signal
Advantages
reduces frequency selective
fading
in cellular networks
base stations can use the
same frequency range
several base stations can
detect and recover the signal
soft handover
Disadvantages
precise power control necessary
user data
chipping
sequence
resulting
signal
0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
XOR
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
=
t
b

t
c

t
b
: bit period
t
c
: chip period
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) II
X
user data
chipping
sequence
modulator
radio
carrier
spread
spectrum
signal
transmit
signal
transmitter
demodulator
received
signal
radio
carrier
X
chipping
sequence
lowpass
filtered
signal
receiver
integrator
products
decision
data
sampled
sums
correlator
2.31.1
Spring 2003 ICS 243E - Ch.2 Wireless Transmission 2.47 2.32.1
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) I
Discrete changes of carrier frequency
sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo
random number sequence
Two versions
Fast Hopping:
several frequencies per user bit
Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency
Advantages
frequency selective fading and interference limited to short
period
simple implementation
uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
Disadvantages
not as robust as DSSS
simpler to detect

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) II
user data
slow
hopping
(3 bits/hop)
fast
hopping
(3 hops/bit)
0 1
t
b

0 1 1 t
f
f
1

f
2

f
3

t
t
d

f
f
1

f
2

f
3

t
t
d

t
b
: bit period t
d
: dwell time
2.33.1
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) III
modulator
user data
hopping
sequence
modulator
narrowband
signal
spread
transmit
signal
transmitter
received
signal
receiver
demodulator
data
frequency
synthesizer
hopping
sequence
demodulator
frequency
synthesizer
narrowband
signal
2.34.1
Concept of Cellular Communications
In the late 60s it was proposed to alleviate the problem of
spectrum congestion by restructuring the coverage area of mobile
radio systems.
The cellular concept does not use broadcasting over large areas.
Instead smaller areas called cells are handled by less powerful
base stations that use less power for transmission. Now the
available spectrum can be re-used from one cell to another
thereby increasing the capacity of the system.
However this did give rise to a new problem, as a mobile unit
moved it could potentially leave the coverage area (cell) of a base
station in which it established the call. This required complex
controls that enabled the handing over of a connection (called
handoff) to the new cell that the mobile unit moved into.
In summary, the essential elements of a cellular system are:
Low power transmitter and small coverage areas called cells
Spectrum (frequency) re-use
Handoff
Cell structure
Implements space division multiplex: base station covers a
certain transmission area (cell)
Mobile stations communicate only via the base station

Advantages of cell structures:
higher capacity, higher number of users
less transmission power needed
more robust, decentralized
base station deals with interference, transmission area etc.
locally
Problems:
fixed network needed for the base stations
handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
interference with other cells
Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km on the
country side (GSM) - even less for higher frequencies
2.35.1
Cellular Network
MSC PSTN
Cell
MSC: Mobile Switching Center
PSTN: Public Switched Telephone Network
Base
Station
Handoff
(Theoretical)
Practical Cell - coverage depends on antenna location and
height, transmitter power, terrain, foliage, buildings, etc.
Other MSCs
(IS 41)
F1,F2,..,F6
F7,F8,..,F12
F1,F2,..,F6
F7,F8,..,F12
Some Definitions
Forward path or down link - from base station down to the mobile
Reverse path or up link - from the mobile up to the base station
The mobile unit - a portable voice and/or data comm. transceiver.
It has a 10 digit telephone number that is represented by a 34 bit
mobile identification number -> (215) 684-3201 is divided into two
parts: MIN1: 215 translated into 10bits and MIN2: 684-3201
translated into 24bits. In addition each mobile unit is also
permanently programmed at the factory with a 32 bit electronic
serial number (ESN) which guards against tampering.
The cell - a geographical area covered by Radio Frequency (RF)
signals. It is essentially a radio communication center comprising
radios, antennas and supporting equipment to enable mobile to
land and land to mobile communication. Its shape and size
depend on the location, height , gain and directivity of the
antenna, the power of the transmitter, the terrain, obstacles such
as foliage, buildings, propagation paths, etc. It is a highly irregular
shape, its boundaries defined by received signal strength! But for
traffic engineering purposes and system planning and design a
hexagonal shape is used.
More definitions
The base station (BS) - a transmitter and receiver that
relays signals (control and information (voice or data)) from
the mobile unit to the MSC and vice versa.
The mobile switching center (MSC) - a switching center that
controls a cluster of cells. Base stations are connected to
the MSC via wireline links. The MSC is directly connected to
the PSTN and is responsible for all calls related to mobiles
located within its domain. MSCs intercommunicate using a
link protocol specified by IS (International Standard) 41.
This enables roaming of mobile units (i.e. obtaining service
outside of the home base). The MSC is also responsible for
billing, it keeps track of air time, errors, delays, blocking,
call dropping (due to handoff failure), etc. It is also
responsible for the handoff process, it keeps track of signal
strengths and will initiate a handoff when deemed
necessary (note to handoff or not to handoff is not a trivial
issue!)
The Basic Cellular Communication Protocol I
Every mobile unit whether at home or roaming, has to
register with the MSC controlling the area it is in. If it does
not register then the MSC does not know of its existence
and will not be able to process any of its calls.
The home location register (HLR) is used to keep
information regarding a mobile unit/user, it is a database for
storing and managing subscriber information. When
roaming, a mobile unit registers with a foreign MSC and
data from its HRL is relayed to the visitor location register
(VLR). The VLR is a dynamic database used to store
roaming mobile subscriber information. The HLR and VLR
communicate via the MSCs using IS 41.
The cellular system uses out of band signalling. Most of the
control information is sent over different channels from the
user information (voice or data) channels. Inband signalling
is used for control during the connection (disconnect,
handoff, etc.)
The Basic Cellular Communication Protocol II
A mobile unit when enabled (power on) scans the control
channels and tunes to the one with the strongest signal. The
control channels are known and carry signals pertaining to the
cell sites, e.g. transmission power to be used by the mobile unit in
a particular cell. This process is called initialization.
If the mobile wants to initiate a call, it sends in a service request
on the reverse path control link. The service request contains the
destination phone number and identification information (MIN1,
MIN2, and ESN) of the source mobile unit to verify the originator.
When the base station receives the request, it relays it to the MSC.
The MSC then checks to see it is it a number of another mobile or
of a fixed user. If the latter the call is forwarded to the PSTN. If the
former, it checks to see if the destination mobile unit is a
subscriber (local or visitor/roamer). If not it relays the call to the
PSTN to forward to the appropriate MSC.
The Basic Cellular Communication Protocol III
If the destination is within its cluster it sends out a paging
message to all the base stations. Every base station then
relays this message by broadcasting it on its control
channel. If the destination mobile unit is enabled (power on)
it will detect this message and respond to the base station.
The base station relays this response to the MSC. The MSC
then allocates channels to both the source mobile unit and
the destination mobile unit. The corresponding base
stations pass this information on to the respective mobile
units. The mobile units then tune to the correct channels
and the communication link is established.
Spectrum and Capacity Issues
Spectrum is limited

Allocated Spectrum
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
F6 F7 F8 F9
FDM
F1,F2,...F9: frequency channels
Frequency Re-use I
To be able to increase the capacity of the system, frequencies must
be re-used in the cellular layout (unless we are using spread
spectrum techniques).
Frequencies cannot be re-used in adjacent cells because of co-
channel interference. The cells using the same frequencies must be
dispersed across the cellular layout. The closer the spacing the
more efficient the scheme!

F1
F1
Cochannel
Interference
F2
F2
Minimum
Re-use distance
Fx:subset of
frequencies
used in a
cell
Frequency Re-use II
For an omni-directional antenna, with constant signal
power, each cell site coverage area would be circular
(barring any terrain irregularities or obstacles).
To achieve full coverage without dead spots, a series of
regular polygons for cell sites are required.
The hexagonal was chosen as it comes the closest to the
shape of a circle, and a hexagonal layout requires fewer
cells (when compared to triangles or rectangles, it has the
largest surface area given the same radius R) -> less cells.
Goal is to find the minimum distance between cells using
same frequencies.
Frequency re-use distance I
A
A
i
j
i,j - integers -> intercell distance
D - min. dist.
D
along cell centers
60%
i,j: multiples of 3
1/2
R
R
R: cell radius
R
D
(u,v)
D=3
1/2
R[i
2
+j
2
+ij]
1/2
R
R = radius of hexagonal
30
0
u
v
u
2
-u
1
=3
1/2
Ri
v
2
-v
1
=3
1/2
Rj
i,j are integers
(0,0)
3
1/2
R
1
2
3
1
3
1/2
R
Frequency re-use distance II
For two adjacent cells: D=3
1/2
R
The closest we can place the same frequencies is called the
first tier around the center cell (minimal re-use distance ->
lower -> more capacity!).
For simplicity we only take the first tier of cells into account
for co-channel interference (i.e., we ignore 2nd, 3rd, etc.
tiers, cause much less interference, negligible!).

Original cell
First tier of interferers
Second tier of interferers
They are all equidistant
away from each other (D)
Cluster of N cells with
different frequencies
Each cell has exactly six equidistant interfering cells
Frequency re-use distance III
D
R
Radius
Radius = D
First Tier
(all use same
frequencies as
center cell)
Cluster of N cells with
frequencies different
(large hexagon)
from center cell
Frequency re-use distance III
Radius = dist. between two co-channel cells =
(3R
2
[i
2
+j
2
+ij])
1/2
= D
Since the area of a hexagon is proportional to the square of
the distance between its center and a vertex (i.e., its radius),
the area of the large hexagon is:
A
large
= k[Radius]
2
= k[3R
2
[i
2
+j
2
+ij]]
where k is a constant.
Similarly the area of each cell (i.e., small hexagon) is:
A
small
= k[R
2
]
Comparing these expressions we find that:
A
large
/A
small
= 3[i
2
+j
2
+ij] = D
2
/R
2

Frequency re-use distance IV
From symmetry we can see that the large hexagon
encloses the center cluster of N cells plus 1/3 the number of
the cells associated with 6 other peripheral hexagons. Thus
the total number of cells enclosed by the first tier is:
N+6(1/3N) = 3N
Since the area of a hexagon is proportional to the number
of cells contained within it:
A
large
/A
small
= 3N/1 = 3N
Substituting we get:
3N = 3[i
2
+j
2
+ij] = D
2
/R
2

Or:

D/R = q =(3N)1/2
q is referred to as the reuse ratio!

Co-channel Interference I
The co-channel interference ratio S/I is given as:

S = desired signal power in a cell (note that many texts use C
instead of S), I
k
= interference signal power from the k
th
cell, N
i
=
number of interfering cells.
If we only assume the first tier of interfering cells, then N
i
=6,and
all cells interfere equally (they are all equidistant!).
The signal power at any point is inversely proportional to the
inverse of the distance from the source raised to the power.
(2<<5)
S
I
---
S
I
k
( )
k 1 =
N
i
------------------------ =
Co-channel Interference II
I
k
is proportional to D
, and S is proportional to R
, where
is the propagation path loss and is dependent upon terrain
environment. For cellular systems it is often taken as = 4.
Therefore:

The relationship between SNR (signal to noise ratio - E
b
/N
o
)
and S/I for cellular systems with Rayleigh fading channels:
SNR = S/I(db) 9db.
S
I
---
R

6 D

-----------------
1
6 q

----------------
q
6
----- = = =
For a given S/I how to get N
Recall that: D/R = q =(3N)
1/2
An S/I = 18db (decibels=10logS/I) = 63.1, gives an
acceptable voice quality.
Therefore q = [6x63.1]
1/4
= 4.41 when = 4
Substituting for N we get N = (4.41)
2
/3 equals approx. 7
This means that if we have 49 frequency channels available,
each cell gets 49/7 = 7 frequency channels.
If we have 82 available then 82/7 = 11.714 -> which means
that 5 cells will have 12 and 2 cells will have 11!
How does that translate to i and j for a cell layout?
N = [i
2
+j
2
+ij], find i,j that satisfy the equation!
Calculating i, j, and D from N
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
4
5
6
7
7
7
D
D = 4.41R
i
j
N=7 -> i=2, j=1
f
4

f
5

f
1

f
3

f
2

f
6

f
7

f
3

f
2

f
4

f
5

f
1

f
3

f
5
f
6

f
7
f
2

f
2

Frequency planning
Frequency reuse only with a certain distance between the
base stations
Standard model using 7 frequencies:

Fixed frequency assignment:
certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell
problem: different traffic load in different cells
Dynamic frequency assignment:
base station chooses frequencies depending on the
frequencies already used in neighbor cells
more capacity in cells with more traffic
assignment can also be based on interference measurements
f
4

f
5

f
1

f
3

f
2

f
6

f
7

f
3

f
2

f
4

f
5

f
1

2.36.1
Increasing Capacity
We can see that by reducing the area of a cell we can
increase capacity as we will have more cells each with its
own set of frequencies.
What is drawback of shrinking the size of the cells (cell
splitting)? Increase in the number of handoffs -> increased
load on the system! Also need more infrastrucutre -> base
stations (each cell needs a BS).
An easier solution exists, sectorization. It does not reduce
handoffs, its advantage: it does not require more
infrastructure.
Sectorization I
We can also increase the capacity by using sectors in cells.
Directional antennas instead of being omnidirectional, will
only beam over a certain angle.
120%
60%
F1
F2
F3
F1+F2+F3=Fa
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F1+F2+F3+F4+F5+F6=Fa
3 sectors
6 sectors
Fa: A cells set of frequencies
f
1

f
2

f
3

f
2

f
1

f
1

f
2

f
3

f
2

f
3

f
1

f
2

f
1

f
3
f
3

f
3
f
3

f
3

f
1
f
1
f
1

f
2

f
3

f
2

f
3

f
2

f
3

h
1

h
2

h
3

g
1

g
2

g
3

h
1

h
2

h
3

g
1

g
2

g
3

g
1

g
2

g
3

3 cell cluster
3 cell cluster with 3 sectors
Sectorization II
What does that mean?
We can now assign frequency sets to sectors and decrease
the re-use distance or improve S/I ratio (i.e. signal quality).
Question: By how much? Depends on number of sectors
(i.e., 60% or 120%).

First Tier
(all use same
frequencies in
center cell) A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A: set of frequencies in a sector
A:Do not interfere with
Asector of center cell
A:Cause Mobile to cell
site interference
A:Cause Cell site to
mobile interference
sectors as
Other Capacity or Signal Improvement Tech.
Dynamic channel allocation (DCA): allows cells to borrow
frequencies from other cells within the cluster if not used
by them. Can be used to alleviate hotspots. Another
implementation basically has all channels available to all
cells, they get allocated based upon demand.
Power control: by reducing the transmitted power, the
battery life of a mobile can be extended. It also helps in
reducing -channel and adjacent channel interference.

Ch2 Wireless Transmission

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q is referred to as the reuse ratio!

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