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Objective of the topic

Conduction
Conduction rate equation
About heat flux
The thermal properties of matter
a) Solid state
b) Insulation
c) Fluid state
About thermal diffusivity




INTRODUCTION TO CONDUCTION
1
OBJECTIVE OF THE TOPIC
Deeper understanding of Fouriers law and its origin
Forms it takes for different geometry
Dependency of k on physical nature of the medium
Generate the rate equation from basics principle
Advantage of heat equations
2
CONDUCTION

Transport of energy in a medium due to temperature gradient
Physical mechanism random atomic and molecular activity
Governed by Fourier law , q

x
dT/ dX
Application of Fouriers law



3
CONDUCTION RATE EQUATION
Origin of Fouriers law observed phenomena
Experiment :
Consider a rod for experiment of known material, insulated
laterally, end faces at T
1
and T
2
temperature ( T
1
T
2
) .The
temperature gradient causes conduction heat transfer in +ve x
direction
Conditions :
1) T and x constant, q A
2) T and A constant , q 1/ x
3) x and A constant , q T
Collectively effect ,
q A T / x (1)



4

SALIENT FEATURE OF RATE EQUATION

Equation (1) Remains valid for all types of material
For A, T , x holding constant , the q varies from metal to plastic
(q)
metals
(q)
plastic
Proportionality constant is k , thermal conductivity ( material
property)
Hence , q = k A T / x (2)
Where k W/mK
For x 0
q = - k A dT / dx
OR
q = -k dT / dx ( -ve sign for heat travels in decreasing
temperature direction)


5
ABOUT HEAT FLUX
Heat flux is directional quantity
It is normal to cross section area A
Heat flows always normal to a surface of constant temperature
( Isothermal surface)
Isothermal surface are planes normal to x direction
It is a vector quantity
Fouriers law can be written as,
q = -k T = -k (iT / x + j T / y + k T / z )
Where, - three dimensional del operator
T ( x, y, z) is scalar temperature field


6
TWO DIMENSIONAL RATE RELATION
Alternate form of rate equation,
q

n =
-k (T / n)
Where,
q

n
- heat flux in a direction n
perpendicular to isotherm.
For two dimensional case, heat
flux can be resolved into two
component in catetian
coordinate
General expression for q is-
q = i q
x
+ j q
y
+ kq
z
Where,
q
x
= -k T / x
(same for y and z)
7
THE THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
To understand Fourier's law thermal conductivity (k) should be
known,
Thermal conductivity
1. Is a transport property
2. Indicates rate at which energy is transferred by diffusion process
3. Depends on physical structure of matter, atomic and molecular
motion, And related to the state of matter.
4. By Fouriers law, for conduction k can be defined as
k
x
= - q
x
/ (T / x ) { similar for y and z
directions }
5. For isotropic material, it is independent of direction of transfer
6. k increases with increase in heat flux
7. k
solids
> k
liquid
> k
gases

8
THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF MATTER
A) For solids , k
solids
:
1)

Solids consists of
i) free electrons
ii) atoms bounded in periodic arrangement ( lattice)
2) Transport of thermal energy due to
i) Migration of free electrons (k
e
)
ii) Lattice vibration waves ( k
l
)
k = k
e
+ k
l

3) By first approximation, k
e
1 /
e
(
e
- electrical resistance)
4) Varying relation between , k
e
& k
l
is given in table below,

9
THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF MATTER
Type of matter Dominance Remark
Pure metal k
e
Low resistance
alloys k
l
Large resistance
Non metallic solids k
l
Frequency of interaction
between atoms of lattice
Crystalline well ordered
solids
k
l
Well ordered lattice
arrangement ( quartz)
Crystalline unordered
solids
k
quartz
> k
glass
Amorphous nature ( glass)
Crystalline non metals k
l
( diamond & beryllium
oxide)
Conductors( aluminium) k has exceeding values Availability of electrons
10
THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF MATTER
B) Insulation system ,
1) Low thermal conductivity materials
2) Effective thermal conductivity material: Fibers, powders ,flakes when
finely dispersed throughout in air space. Depend s on- thermal
conductivity of material, surface radiative property, nature and
volume of air or void space.
3) Bulk density Solid mass / unit volume , interconnection of matter.
4) Cellular insulation ( foamed systems) If small voids or hollow space
are formed by bonding or fusing portion of solid material, a rigid
matrix is formed , and spaces are sealed from each other , these are
made out of plastics and glass.
5) Reflective insulation Multilayered, parallel thin sheets or foils of
high reflectivity , which are spaced to reflect radiant energy back to
the source.

11
12
THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF MATTER

B) Insulation system ,
Modes of heat transfer in insulation :
1) Conduction through solid matrix
2) Convection or conduction through air in the void space
3) If temperature are very high, then radiation exchange between the
surface of solid matrix
These all modes may result in effective thermal conductivity
for insulation material.




13
FLUID STATE ( LIQUID AND GASES)
A)Gases:
1) Thermal conductivity less ( intermolecular spacing more)
2) k
liquids/gases
< k
solids
3) Kinetic theory of gases - Effect of temperature, pressure chemical
species on k of gas .
k nc
Effects,
1) k c T/ mol. Wt
2) n P k is independent of pressure
3) 1/P



14
15
FLUID STATE ( LIQUID AND GASES)
B) liquids:
1) For liquids molecular condition is difficult to understand.
2) For Non metallic liquids, thermal conductivity decreases with
increasing temperature ( except- glycerin and water)
3) Thermal conductivity decreases with increasing molecular weight
4) Liquid metals : k
liquid metals
>>>> k
non-metallic liquid


16
17
THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
For HT, important properties:
1. Thermo physical- Pertains to equilibrium of a system, density ,
sp. Heat . ( density * sp.heat = volume heat capacity, J/m
3
K)
2. Transport Diffusion rate coefficient, conductivity , viscosity.
Volume heat capacity is ability of material to store heat.
Solids and liquids (C
p
> 1 MJ /m
3
K)
Gases ( C
p
~ 1 kJ /m
3
K )
Thermal diffusivity ( )= Thermal conductivity
Heat capacity
Ability of material to conduct thermal energy relative to its ability to
store thermal energy
Large Quick response to thermal environment
Small Sluggish response

18
HEAT DIFFUSION EQUATION
Objective :
1) To determine temperature field in medium, due to the boundary
conditions
2) From temperature distribution calculation of heat flux
3) Temperature distributions helps Structural integrity, thermal
stresses, expansion and deflection in solids
4) Temperature distributions can be used to optimize thickness of
insulation, determine compatibility of special coating or
adhesives used with the material.

19
STEPS FOR RATE EQUATION
Already discussed:
1) Define differential control volume
2) Identify energy transfer process
3) Introduce rate equation applicable
4) Solution of differential equation gives temperature distribution in
the medium for the given boundary conditions.

20
GENERAL HEAT EQUATION
I) Assumptions:
1) No bulk motion
2) Temperature distribution expressed in Cartesian coordinates
II) Consider infinitesimally small control volume ( dx.dy.dz)
III) Time basis selection : Instant time basis
IV) Consider temperature gradient across each of control surface
V ) Select energy process Conduction
VI) Define each term,
Here,
a) q
x
, q
y
, q
z
heat rates perpendicular to each control surface ,x, y ,z
respt.
b) q
x+dx
, q
y+dy
, q
z+dz
- heat rates to opposite control surface ,x, y ,z
respt.




21
22
q
z+dz
q
y+dy
q
x+dx
q
z
q
y
q
x
E
g
, E
st
dx
dy
dz

z
y
x
GENERAL HEAT EQUATION (CUBE)
Where,
q
x+dx
= q
x
+ ( q
x
/ x ) dx
q
y+dy
= q
y
+ ( q
y
/ y ) dy
q
y+dy
= q
z
+ ( q
z
/ z) dz
c)
g
energy generated within medium

g
= q (dot)dxdydz

g
= +ve, medium is sourse

g
= -ve , medium becomes sink
q (dot) W/m
3
d)
st
= Cp ( T / t) dx dy dz------ internal thermal energy stored
in control volume
Cp ( T / t) time rate of change of thermal energy of medium per
unit volume.




23
GENERAL HEAT EQUATION (CUBE)
VII) Apply energy conservation equation,

in
+
g

out
=
g

VIII) Substitution of terms in energy equation-
(q
x
+ q
y
+ q
z
) + (q (dot)dxdydz ) (q
x+dx
+ q
y+dy
+ q
z+dz )
= Cp ( T / t) dx dy dz
substituting b in above equation and solving,
- (q
x
/ x ) dx - (q
y
/ y)dy -

(q
z
/z

) + (q (dot)dxdydz ) = Cp
( T / t) dx dy dz
- Where , q
x
= -kdydz T/ x
- q
y
= -kdxdz T/ y
- q
z
= -kdydx T/ z



24
GENERAL HEAT EQUATION (CUBE)

Finally we get,
/ x(k T / x) +/ y( k T / y) +

/z ( k T / z) + (q (dot) =
Cp ( T / t)
This is diffusion equation in Cartesian coordinates
Here,
/ x(k T / x)- Net conduction heat flux into control volume for x
direction
Also,
/ x(k T / x) dx = q
x
- q
x+dx





25
GENERAL HEAT EQUATION (CUBE)
Simplifying:
1) For constant k

2
T / x
2
+
2
T / y
2
+

2
T / z
2
+ (q (dot)/k = 1/ ( T / t)
2) Steady state condition (Poisson equation)
/ x(k T / x) +/ y( k T / y) +

/z ( k T / z) + (q (dot) =0
3)For steady state one dimensional with no heat energy generation-
d/dx (kdt/dx) = 0
dq/dx =0 (constant heat flux)
4) Transient and no heat generation , constant k- (diffusion equation)

2
T / x
2
+
2
T / y
2
+

2
T / z
2
= 1/ ( T / t)
5) Steady state, constant k and no heat generation- Laplace equation

2
T / x
2
+
2
T / y
2
+

2
T / z
2
= 0
26
GENERAL HEAT EQUATION (CYLINDER)
27

qz+dz
qz
q + d
q
qr
qr+dr
rd
dz
dr
Eg,
Est
GENERAL HEAT EQUATION (CYLINDER)
General expression heat flux vector and Fourier's law for cylindrical
coordinates ,
q = -K T = -k (iT/ r +j*1/r T/ + k T/ z )
Where heat flux,
In radial direction is : -k (iT/ r )
Circumferential direction is : j*1/r T/
Axial direction is : k T/ z
Differential volume: dr * r d * dz
Applying energy balance to control volume,
1/r / r (kr T/ r ) + 1/r
2
/ (k T/ ) + / z(k T/ z) + q(dot)
= Cp T/ t


28
29
rsind
rd
dr
qr
qr+dr
q+d
q
q
q +d
GENERAL HEAT EQUATION (SPHERE)
The general heat flux vector and Fourier's law
q = -k T = -k (iT/ r +j*1/r T/ + k/r sin T/ )
Where heat flux in-
Radial direction : -k T/ r
Polar direction: -k *1/r T/
Azimuthal direction: - k/r sin T/
Applying energy balance to differential control volume, we get
1/r
2
/ r (kr
2
T/ r ) + 1/r
2
sin
2
/ (k T/ ) + 1/r
2
sin /
(k sin T/ ) + q(dot) = Cp T/ t




30
BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITION

1) To determine temperature distribution, heat equation to be solved
2) Solution of equation will depend on physical condition at the
boundary of the medium
3) Or if the process is time dependent, then condition existing in
medium at sometime, t
4) These expression are expressed in mathematical form
5) Commonly three kind of BC are encountered in heat transfer problem

31
BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITION
The three boundary conditions are:
1) Constant surface temperature
a) surface maintained at constant temperature ,
b) it is called as Dirichlet condition, BC of first type
c) surface in contact with melting ice / boiling liquid.
d) condition expressed , T (0,t) = Ts
2) Constant surface heat flux
I ) Finite heat flux
a) heat flux is fixed/ constant at the surface
b) it is called Neumann condition / boundary condition of second
type
c) Bounding thin film
d) k T / x
x=0
= q

s
32
BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITION
II) Insulated surface
a) Special case which corresponds to perfect insulation
b) T / x
x=0
=0
3) Convective surface condition
a) It represents convective heating or cooling at the surface
b) k T / x
x=0
= h { T

- T
(0,t)
}
Note:
1)Heat flux and temperature distribution = f {conditions at the surface}
2) for
1D 2 BC
2D - 4 BC
3 D 6BC
No. of BC specified --------------- order of differential equation


33
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
34
THANK YOU
35
CHAPTER 2 ENDS

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