Geology 101

Class 20
Spring 2014
Objectives Chapter 11
Identify the types of rock deformation on the
surface of the Earth.
Explain the relationship of stress and strain
and how they explain the causes and effects
of earthquakes
Explain the connection between rock
deformations and the origin of Earth
resources.
Objectives Chapter 11
Identify the types of rock deformation on the
surface of the Earth.
Folds, Faults, and
other
Records of Rock
Deformation

What can cause hard rocks
to be deformed like this?
The study of structural geology
Deformation of Rocks
Folding and faulting are the most common
forms of deformation in the sedimentary,
igneous and metamorphic rocks that
compose the Earths crust
Structural Geology is the study of the
deformation of rocks and its effects.
Orientation of Deformed Rocks
We need some way to describe the geometry of
geologic structures. So we use the terms strike
and dip.
Strike: compass direction of a rock layer as it
intersects with a horizontal surface.
Dip: acute angle between the rock layer and the
horizontal surface, measured perpendicular to
strike.
Strike and Dip on a Rooftop
Strike and Dip in a Rock Structure
Dip and Strike in Rock Formation
Displaying Strike and Dip
on a Map
35
O
N
S
Direction
of strike
E
Direction of
down dip
W
15
FOLDS
Fold in strata in Wyoming: anticline
or syncline?
Cross-section of a Syncline
18
Not always possible to tell the anticlines
from synclines on surface
19
Extreme Folding
Overturned fold
An overturned fold takes place when folding rock becomes
bent or warped.
Sometimes the folds can become so disfigured that they may
even overlap each other.
An example of overturned folding is shown in the diagram
below.
Asymmetrical folds
Overturned folds
In many areas, many anticlines and synclines are
plunging folds rather than horizontal folds
And Even More Fold Terminology
Dome: a sequence of folded rocks in which
all the beds dip away from a central point
Basin: a sequence of folded rocks in which
all the beds dip towards a central point
Objectives Chapter 11
Identify the types of rock deformation on the
surface of the Earth.
Explain the relationship of stress and strain
and how they explain the causes and effects
of earthquakes

Rock Fractures
Joints
Cracks in rocks along which there has been
no appreciable displacement.
Faults
Fractures in rocks created by
tectonic processes
(Movement of the rock on both sides
of the fault)


Types of Faults
Faults classified by direction of relative
movement or SLIP
Dip-slip faults
Normal
Reverse
Strike-slip faults
Right-lateral
Left-lateral
Oblique-slip faults



Hanging Wall: Term used by miners. They
could hang their light on this side of the
fault because it was above them.
Footwall: Also from the miners, this side
of the wall upon which they could stand
below the hanging wall.
Faults
Dip-slip Faults
Motion of the fault blocks is parallel
to the dip direction

Two types:
Normal movement is down dip
Reverse movement is up dip
Hanging wall
Foot wall
Hanging wall
Foot wall
Rift Valley
Reverse Faulting in
Rift zones
Thrust Fault
footwall
hanging wall
cross section
Thrust faults are low-angle reverse faults
Strike-slip Faults
Motion of the fault blocks is parallel
to the strike direction

There are 2 types
Right-lateral
Left-lateral
Left-lateral
Left-lateral Strike Slip Fault
aerial (map) view
Right-lateral Strike Slip Fault
aerial (map) view
San Andreas Fault (right-lateral)
Displacement
both vertically
and
horizontally
What determines if a rock
Folds (bends)
or faults (breaks)?
Type of force applied
Pressure
Temperature
Rock (mineral) composition
Depth at Which the Deformation Occurs is
a Direct Factor
At shallow crust depths, rock has a greater
probability of breaking
At deeper crust depths, rock usually deforms
Why????
Hotter
Higher constraining pressure


Strength
Ability of an object to resist
deformation
In lab, marble was tested
Fractured Deformed
Strain
Any change in original shape or
size of an object in response to
stress acting on the object
Three Major Types
of Directed Stress
Compression
Tension
Shear


Anatomy of an Earthquake
All is cool
No stress, no
strain in rocks
Tectonic forces
push the farside to
left and nearside to
Right, stress and strain
build in rocks
Finally the stress exceeds the
strength of rocks and they
fail along the weakest
plane, the fault line, releasing
the energy stored -EARTHQUAKE.
The Earth is displaced along
fault line but the stresses go to zero
Rayleigh Waves

Particle
motion
Particle motion consists of elliptical motions (generally retrograde
elliptical) in the vertical plane and parallel to the direction of
propagation. Amplitude decreases with depth. Material returns to its
original shape after wave passes.
Deformation
propagates
CIVILIZATION EXISTS BY
GEOLOGICAL CONSENT
The same geologic processes
that make our planet
habitable also make it
dangerous
US Most Deadly Earthquakes
Date UTC Location Deaths Comments
1811 12 16 Northeast Arkansas -
New Madrid, Missouri
Several 1811 12 16 thru 1812 02 07.
1906 04 18 San Francisco, California 3000 Deaths (approximate) from earthquake and fire.
1946 04 01 Aleutian Islands, Alaska 165 Tsunami: 159 Hawaii, 5 Alaska, 1 California.
1964 03 28 Prince William Sound, Alaska 128 Tsunami: 98 Alaska, 11 California, 4 Oregon.
Earthquake: 15 Alaska.
1933 03 11 Long Beach, California 115
1868 04 03 Hawaii Island, Hawaii 77 Landslides: 31, tsunami: 46.
1971 02 09 San Fernando, California 65
1989 10 18 Santa Cruz County, California 63 World Series Quake
1960 05 22 Chile, South America 61 Tsunami in Hawaii.
1886 09 01 Charleston, South Carolina 60
1994 01 17 Northridge, California 60
1812 12 08 San Juan Capistrano, California 40
1868 10 21 Hayward, California 30
1959 08 18 Hebgen Lake, Montana 28
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip
/dynamic/Vigil.html
The Infamous San Andrus
Transverse Fault and Juan
De Fuca Subduction Zone
http://z.about.com/d/history
1900s/1/7/Z/V/sf33.gif
Earthquake Damage
1971 San Fernando
Quake
http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs
.gov/cgi-bin/show_picture.cg
i?ID=ID.%20Kachadoorian,
20R.%20%20%20120c
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/states/events/1989_10_18.php
Collapse of Nimitz Freeway Oakland
Loma Prieta Quake October 18, 1989
Collapse of section of Bay Bridge
Loma Prieta Quake October 18, 1989

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/states/events/1989_10_18.php
The Cocos plate is underthrusting the western edge of the
Caribbean plate, while the eastern edge of the plate is be
underthrust by the oceanic lithosphere created at the mid-Atlantic
ridge. From:
http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/north_america/west_
indies.html

Todays earthquake occurred within subducted oceanic lithosphere
that has been subducted below the Martinique region.




Plate tectonic motion vectors.

Map view of Caribbean seismicity, January 1, 1960, - November 30,
2007. (Map created by the program SeismicEruption.)

Box with arrows shows the region selected for the cross section in
the next figure.

The westward dipping zone of seismicity occurs within the
subducted lithosphere.

CHOR Helicorder record.

CHOR Seismogram filtered with a low-pass filter with corner set to
10 seconds.
Sac-formatted file: 2007112919.sac.

The P and S phases are both quite clear.
Back
Magnitude 7.3 Caribbean Earthquake Martinique Region, Windward Islands
Thursday, November 29, 2007 at 19:00:19 UTC
(11:00:19 AM Pacific Standard Time)
Epicenter: Latitude 14.921N, Longitude 61.264W
Depth: approximately 145 kilometers.







Plate tectonic motion vectors.



Map view of Caribbean seismicity, January 1, 1960, - November 30, 2007. (Map created by the program SeismicEruption.)


Box with arrows shows the region selected for the cross section in the next figure.


The westward dipping zone of seismicity occurs within the subducted lithosphere.


CHOR Helicorder record.


CHOR Seismogram filtered with a low-pass filter with corner set to 10 seconds.
Sac-formatted file: 2007112919.sac.


The P and S phases are both quite clear.
Back
Caribbean Plate Movement and the
January 13, 2010 Haiti Earthquake
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.drgeorgepc.com/volcTsu2CaribbeanTectonics.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.drgeorgepc.com/TsunamiVolcanicCaribbean.html&usg=__aWSWL8CI1CDlDt
dpqBUwz4bcbVo=&h=254&w=380&sz=19&hl=en&start=26&um=1&tbnid=T09BUSSVF1o80M:&tbnh=82&tbnw=123&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dcaribbean%2Bplate%2Btectonics%26ndsp%3D20%26hl%3D
en%26rlz%3D1R2SKPB_enUS336%26sa%3DN%26start%3D20%26um%3D1
Haiti 1-13-2010 Earthquake
epicenter
Miami
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/m
ap/
SAN FRANCisco
S
SAN FRANCISCO
University of
San Francisco
Berkeley,
Home of the
University of
California
Moraga,
Home of St. Marys
College
http://quake.usgs.gov/re
centeqs/latest.htm
http://quake.usgs.gov/re
centeqs/latest.htm
http://quake.wr.usgs.gov/info/faultmaps/slipage.html
Recency of
California-Nevada
Faults
San Andres
Last year you could contact this site
and you could get your
USGS Earthquake Probability map
for the next 24 hours, now it
has been discontinued.
http://pasadena.wr.usgs.gov/step
Richter Earthquake Scale

Magnitude Effects Estimated Number
Each Year
2.5 or less Usually not felt, but can be 900,000
recorded by seismograph .
2.5 to 5.4 Often felt, but only causes 30,000
minor damage
5.5 to 6.0 Slight damage to buildings 500
and other structures
6.1 to 6.9 May cause a lot of damage 100
in very populated areas.
7.0 to 7.9 Major earthquake. 20
Serious damage
8.0 or greater Great earthquake. Can totally One every 5 to 10
destroy communities years

The Richter scale is logarithmic scale (base 10) so the amplitude of earth
movement is 10 times increased for each one point increase and 32 times more
energy is released. The highest reading recorded was a 9.5 during a 1960
Chilean quake.


Moment Magnitude Scale
Richter scale measures movement 100 km from
point of failure. Good for small quakes.
Moment-magnitude used to measure total
energy released from larger quakes.
Area moved times the average displacement
times the rock shear strength = Mw
Still log based: 4 to 5, 32 times more energy;
4 to 6, 1032 times bigger
2004 Sumatra quake 9.3 1500 km rip, 7 to 20
meter displacement: Energy equal to US
annual consumption.


Modified Mercalli Scale
Measures what is felt
I Not felt
II May be felt by those in tall buildings
III - Many indoors feel something
IV - Most people indoors feel it, Dishes
Rattle, Many outdoors feel nothing
V- Almost everyone feels something
VI Everyone feels movement no
structural damage
VII Hard to stand, considerable damage in
poorly built buildings
VIII Hard to steer car, well built building
suffer slight damage
IX Well built building damaged
X Most buildings destroyed, dams collapse
XI Most buildings collapse
XII End of the world as we know it
almost everything destroyed

Mercalli dependent on distance,
soil conditions, intensity
Modified Mercelli Scale
Readings from the
October 1989
World Series Quake
1800-1999 Greater
than VII
Mercalli index
Occurrences
http://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/rghm/quakes/Pages/MS49.aspx
Summary Major Earthquakes
San Fernando 1971- VII-IX 6.5
Loma Prieta 1989 VII-IX 7.1
Northridge 1994 VII-IX 6.8
San Francisco 1906 XI 8.25
Chile 1960 - XII 8.6 or 9.5
Alaska 1964 X-XII 8.6
Chile 2010 IX 8.8
Charleston S.C. 1886 - X? - 7.3 (in the middle of a
plate)
Earthquake Hazards
Surface faulting
Ground shaking
Ground failure (Liquefaction)
Tsunamis
Earthquake Effects - Ground Shaking
KGO-TV News ABC-7

Loma Prieta, CA 1989
Earthquake Effects - Ground Shaking
Northridge, CA 1994
Repairs underway to Washington Monument, damaged in 2011 Virginia M5.8 Quake
Kobe Japan 1996
Turkey 1999
San Fernando 1971 Hydraulic dam fill failure
Niigita 1964 Liquefaction of foundation soils
What effects the damage caused?
Strength of quake, how much energy is released.
Natural rock conditions does it trigger
landslides which in water can cause
tsunamis
Soil conditions does it cause liquefaction of soils
(Kobe, Japan)
How well designed and built are structures
Engineers learn more from every quake Bridge
designs totally changed after San Fernando 1994
quake
Earthquakes over 3.0
1974-2011
Mercali readings of intensity
of August 23, 2011
Virginia M5.8 Quake.
Earthquake Effects - Tsunamis
Photograph Credit: Henry Helbush. Source: National Geophysical Data Center
1957 Aleutian Tsunami
NOAA
Objectives Chapter 11
Identify the types of rock deformation on the
surface of the Earth.
Explain the relationship of stress and strain
and how they explain the causes and effects
of earthquakes
Explain the connection between rock
deformations and the origin of Earth
resources.
Two Texas Basins, one from Permian
Age, mostly carbonate,
the Cretaceous-Tertary-Quaternary
sandstones
Objectives Chapter 11
Identify the types of rock deformation on the
surface of the Earth.
Explain the relationship of stress and strain
and how they explain the causes and effects
of earthquakes
Explain the connection between rock
deformations and the origin of Earth
resources.