Concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel,

crushed rock, or other aggregates

(which occupy most of the volume) held
together by a hardened paste of
cement and water (which is the binding
agent).
Extensively used for construction material
Can be custom made to have specific
quality
RC tanks and marine structure : strong &
watertight
Runways / road : tough, wear resistant
and have high flexural strength
RC : flexural members and column
concrete should be strong in
compression
Paste (30%-40%):
PC : 7% - 11.5% by volume
Water : 14% - 21% by volume
Aggregate (60%-70%):
Coarse aggregate
Fine aggregate
Admixture

Strength depends on the water-cement ratio in the
initial mix. Water is kept to a minimum for maximum
hardness.
Water increases workability, allowing the proportion
of aggregate to cement to be increased, thereby
reducing cost.
The ideal amount of cement is just enough to coat
each aggregate particle completely.
Fine aggregates require more coating material, and
so the total cost of the concrete increases as the
size of the aggregate decreases
Shrinkage due to evaporation is proportional to the
amount of cement paste; the higher the proportion
of cement, the more shrinkage.

Measured by strength and durability
Strength of concrete is depends on:
w/c ratio
Rate of hydration
Quality
Size and gradation of aggregate
Amount of water
Mixing time
Shape and texture of aggregate
Workability
Effective use of material
Effective operation
Ease of handling Economy
Water / Cement Ratio
Air entrained concrete
Ratio by mass of water to cement that is
used in concrete mix
Strength of workable concrete mix is
dependant only on the w/c content.
Range : 0.4 0.7

The strength of concrete is very much dependent upon the hydration reaction just discussed. Water plays a critical role, particularly the amount used. The strength of concrete increases when less water is used to make concrete. The hydration reaction itself consumes a specific amount of water. Concrete is actually mixed with more water than is needed for the hydration reactions. This extra water is added to give concrete sufficient workability. Flowing concrete is desired to achieve proper filling and composition of the forms. The water not consumed in the hydration reaction will remain in the microstructure pore space. These pores make the concrete weaker due to the lack of strength-forming calcium silicate hydrate bonds. Some pores will remain no matter how well the concrete has been compacted.




The strength of concrete is very much dependent upon the hydration reaction just discussed. Water plays a critical role, particularly the amount used. The strength of concrete increases when less water is used to make concrete. The hydration reaction itself consumes a specific amount of water. Concrete is actually mixed with more water than is needed for the hydration reactions. This extra water is added to give concrete sufficient workability. Flowing concrete is desired to achieve proper filling and composition of the forms. The water not consumed in the hydration reaction will remain in the microstructure pore space. These pores make the concrete weaker due to the lack of strength-forming calcium silicate hydrate bonds. Some pores will remain no matter how well the concrete has been compacted.




The strength of concrete increases when less water
is used to make concrete.
The hydration reaction itself consumes a specific
amount of water.
Concrete is actually mixed with more water than is
needed for the hydration reactions.
This extra water is added to give concrete sufficient
workability.
Flowing concrete is desired to achieve proper filling
and composition of the forms.
The water not consumed in the hydration reaction will
remain in the microstructure pore space.
These pores make the concrete weaker due to the
lack of strength-forming calcium silicate hydrate bonds.
Some pores will remain no matter how well the
concrete has been compacted.


W/C RATIO STRENGTH WORKABILITY
LOW HIGH LOW
HIGH LOW HIGH
Air entrainment is the process whereby many
small air bubbles are incorporated into
concrete and become part of the matrix that
binds the aggregate together in the hardened
concrete. These air bubbles are dispersed
throughout the hardened cement paste but
are not, by definition, part of the paste
Protect concrete against disintegration
resulting from freezing and thawing of water in
concretes pores
Improve workability, reduce aggregate
segregation, reduce bleeding of cement paste
to concrete surface
Ingredient Quality Workability Economy
Aggregate
Portland Cement
Water
Influence of Increasing Amount of Each Principle
Concrete Ingredients on the Concrete Properties
Condition of concrete % average strength
Excellent
Weight batching graded aggregates
in three sizes moisture determination,
controlled supervision, controlled
curving
90%
Good
Weight batching graded aggregates
moisture determination, constant
supervision
75%
Fair
Weight batching graded aggregates
w/c not controlled, occasional
supervision
60%
Poor
Volume batching little supervision
40%
Proportion on materials in concrete is
governed by conditions of concrete
Fresh State
Hardened State
Stage of concrete in which concrete can
be moulded and it is in plastic state. This is
also called "Green Concrete". Another term
used to describe the state of fresh concrete
is consistence, which is the ease with which
concrete will flow.
Properties of fresh concrete depend upon
the thickness and consistency of mortar film
Fresh state : workable, minimum air voids
and moving around the reinforcement as a
homogenous mass.
Concern: workability, finishing characteristic
Concrete should be strong
Strength depends on consistency of the
paste since aggregates are usually
strong and failures occurs at interface
Concern : strength, modulus of elasticity,
durability, porosity
Fresh State
Hardened State
Factors influenced aggregate content of fresh concrete
Variables in concrete mix proportioning
Properties of plastic concrete
Factor Remarks
Grading Proper grading of aggregate
particles decreases the volume of
voids among the aggregate particles
that permits a greater aggregate
content in a mixture
Entrained Air Entrained air decreases the volume
of cement paste and allows an
increase in aggregate content
Particle Shape and Surface Texture Use of rounded and smooth
aggregates would result in smaller
volumes of voids in the concrete mix
Water-reducing admixtures Dispersing agents used as water-
reducing admixtures make the
cement paste more fluid by releasing
water trapped by the cement
W/C RATIO
AGGREGATE / CEMENT RATIO
OVERALL GRADING
WORKABILITY OF FRESH MIX
Strength of workable concrete mix depends
on water/ cement ratio
Any extra water leaves the voids, decrease
the concrete strength
Selection of a w/c ratio gives the engineer
control over two opposing, yet desirable
properties: strength and workability
A minimum w/c ratio is necessary to ensure
that the water comes into contact with all
cement particles (thus assuring complete
hydration).
Compressive Strength
at 28days, MPa (psi)
W/C Ratio by Weight
Non-Air-Entrained
Concrete
Air Entrained Concrete
48 (7000) 0.33 -
41 (6000) 0.41 0.32
35 (5000) 0.48 0.40
28 (4000) 0.57 0.48
21 (3000) 0.68 0.59
14 (2000) 0.82 0.74

(ACI 211.1 & 211.3)
Target :
Highest aggregate content using the biggest
size possible, with minimum amount of fine
aggregates to serve as lubricating film but
filling all void

Grading does not directly affect the
concrete strength
Total surface area of the particles and
the volume of voids in in the fully
compacted state must be at minimum
to ensure workability
Grading with least proportion of fine
aggregate giving the lowest surface
area stronger mix with same workability
The compacting factor is a measure of
the workability and slump can be taken
for rough guidance.
Degree of
Workability
Slump in mm Compaction
factor
Location
Very low 0 30 0.78 Vibrated concrete Roads
Low 30 50 0.85 Mass concrete with simple
reinforcement Roads
Medium 50 100 0.92 Normal reinforcement
works - Building
High 100 - 170 0.95 Not suitable for vibration
SLUMP TEST TO DETERMINE WORKABILITY
The first 48 hours of concrete mix are very
important for the performance of the
concrete structure.
Fresh concrete can be :
Transported,
Placed,
Compacted,
Finished
A proper mix should maintain its
uniformity inside the form and should not
bleed excessively
Workability
Consistency
Segregation
Bleeding
Plastic
Shrinkage



Defined as the ease with which fresh
concrete can be handled from mixer to
the final structure, without excessive
bleeding & segregation
A concrete that can be readily
compacted is a workable concrete
Desired workability of concrete depends
on the means of compaction
To achieve satisfactory compaction to
remove voids in the concrete
To ensure no occurrence of segregation
& bleeding
W/C Ratio
High w/c increase
workability
Aggregate
More aggregate,
low workability
Shape : smooth
and round,
increase
workability
Size : bigger size,
better workability
Porosity : more
porous, more
water required
Aggregate/Cement
Ratio
More ratio, less
workability
Less water stiff
paste
Weather
Temperature :
high temperature
increase
evaporation
reduce
workability
High velocity
wind high
evaporation -
reduce
workability
Admixture
Chemical
admixture can
increase
workability
Air entraining
agent : produce
bubble increase
mobility,
workability
decrease
segregation &
bleeding
Sand to
Aggregate Ratio
More sand
reduce
workability
Measure of concrete wetness or fluidity
Measured by slump test
Tendency for separation of large and fine
particles in fresh concrete mix due to
method of handling and placing concrete
Results in non-homogenous mix - affects the
strength and durability of hardened
concrete
Causes pores and honeycombed surface
Air entrainment agent : decrease
segregation tendency
HONEYCOMBED CONCRETE DUE TO SEGREGATION
Aggregate gradation : well graded, no
segregation
Concrete moisture :
Too dry : segregation between aggregates
Too wet : segregation between grout and
aggregate
Dropping of fresh concrete from
considerable height
Improper use of concrete vibrator :
moved concrete to another adjacent
location
Prolonged vibration : coarse aggregate
may settle to bottom, grout rise to top
surface
Proper handling and placing of concrete, and concrete vibration
technique is essential to prevent segregation
Concrete handling techniques to prevent segregation
Water gain in concrete some of water
in concrete mix tends to rise to the
surface of freshly placed concrete
Inability of solid constituents in concrete
mix to hold all of the mixing water, which
then slowly displaced and rises to top of
the form
Bleeding can continue to occur until the
cement paste has stiffened sufficiently
Reduction of water
Introduction of fines and air
Proper Compaction (too much
compaction causes bleeding)
Concrete bleeding at wall surface
Concrete bleeding on slab
Contraction that occur while the
concrete in a fresh state
Depends on rigidity of mix amount
To ensure each particle of aggregate in
fresh concrete mix will be coated with
the cement paste
Can be carried out by hand or machine
Involve batching process

Weighing out or measuring out all the
ingredients for a batch of concrete
Amount of materials that are mixed at a
time constitute a batch
Size of batch : designated by the
number of bags of cement (94lb or 1ft
3

of loose volume

) it contains
Eg.: six-sack batch refers to a cubic yard
of concrete made with six bag of 564lb
of cement
Hand mixing : Can be done in a tight
wooden or metal box or in wheelbarrow
Step 1 : Spread sand in a uniform thickness,
covered by cement
Step 2 : Give three turns to the mixture, form
wide crater
Step 3 : Dump coarse aggregate into crater
Step 4 : Carefully pour water over the gravel
while ensuring none of the water escapes
Step 5 : Give entire mix four or more
complete turns until it is of uniform
consistency
Concrete sometimes mixed at the job
site in a stationary mixer or paving mixer
Ready mix concrete delivered to actual
construction site either in a truck agitator
or non-agitating truck
Truck agitator : special truck mixer operating
at agitating speed
Non-agitating truck : used for short hauls


Truck Agitator
Non Agitating Truck
Three mixing method can be used for
ready mix concrete:
Central-mixed concrete : mixed completely
in stationary mixer and delivered in a
agitator truck (2 4rpm)
Shrink-mixed concrete : partially mixed in
stationary mixture and completed in a mixer
truck (4 16rpm)
Truck mixed concrete : completely mixed in
mixer truck
Transit mixer : used for both mixing and
transporting concrete to a job site over
short and long hauls.
Exact amount of concrete are loaded
into truck
Mixer kept revolving slowly en route to
prevent segregation
Concrete should be discharged at the
job site within 90 minutes from the start of
mixing, even if retarders are used (ASTM
C94)
Concrete mixer : ingredients introduced
to mixer by hand or with a mechanical
skip
Mixing time vary about 2-5 minutes
Small drum mixer : pour mixing water
add gravel add cement add sand
and gravel introduce remaining water
Time? Mixed for 3 minutes stop for 2
minutes restart 2 minutes

Concrete is conveyed to the
construction site in wheelbarrows, cart,
belt conveyors, cranes or chute
Concrete pump used to push the
concrete to its final position
Pump must have adequate capacity
and capable of moving concrete
without segregation
Concrete should be placed as near as
possible to its final position.
Slab construction : concrete placed around
perimeter
Must not dump in big piles and then moved
horizontally to its final position
Wall & beam construction : place first batch
at both ends of the section progress
toward center
Prevent bleeding by slowly placing
concrete
Free vertical drop of concrete at any point
during conveying should not exceed 3ft.
Concrete placement on slab
Concrete placement on beam
Different methods are available to
spread and finish concrete work,
depending on the nature of the structure
and the available equipment
Hand floats, power floats, darbies, bull
floats, straightedges, trowels, vibratory
screed and slip forms
Tamper : to compact concrete for sidewalks and pavements
Strikeboard : to level top of concrete before finish
Wood float : to finish concrete surface after struck off
Steel (hand) float / trowel : for smoother surface finish
Darby and bullfloat : smoothing and finishing concrete
Groover : to make and finish joints in floor slab
Edger : to finish edge of slab
Variation in texture and finish is limited
only by the imagination and skill of craft
person
Smooth finish :
Using a finishing or steel trowel
Fine-textured mattelike finish
Broom finish
Attractive nonslip texture
Pulling damp broom across freshly troweled
surface
Suitable for driveways and side walk
Rock Salt Finish
Sprinkling rock salt (coarse gradation) on
surface of troweled concrete surface
Decorative surface finish
5 days of curing under waterproof paper
wash surface with water and brush to
dislodge the salt grains
Brushhammering
Removing a layer of freshly hardened
concrete while fracturing aggregate at the
surface
Vary from light scaling to t a deep bold
texture
Process of maintaining satisfactory
moisture content & temperature in
concrete for a definite period of time
To maintain cement hydration process
required water and proper temperature
Strength of concrete continue to gain
when until curing process stop
concrete dried up
Proper curing can provide desirable
concrete properties :
Compressive strength
Water tightness
Abrasion resistance
Durability
Concrete made at site subject to heat
and wind dry out moisture from the
inside pores
If loss of water not compensated,
hydration process will stop
Compressive strength of concrete at different ages and curing
levels
Curing should start after the final set of
cement
No curing shrink crack
Ample water must be provided for along
period of time to prevent drying
shrinkage
Curing can be performed by any of the
following approaches :
Maintaining the present of water in concrete
during early stage
Ponding, spraying, fogging & wet coverage
Prevent loss of mixing water from concrete by
sealing surface
Impervious paper / plastic, membrane forming
compunds
Accelarate strength gain by supplying heat and
additional moisture
Steam curing, insulating blanket or covers
Best curing method is to substitute moisture
loss by keeping the concrete continuously
wet
Covering exposed surface of concrete
with water
Form earth dikes around concrete
surface to retain water
Suitable for flat surface or pavements
Nozzle or sprayers can be used to
provide continuous spraying or fogging
Requires large amount of water
Suitable in high temperature and low
humidity environment
Moisture-retaining fabric coverings
saturated with water
Eg.: burlap, cotton mats and rugs
Periodic watering of covering fabric with
polyethylene film
May cause stain or concrete discoloring
Kraft paper or plastic sheets
Suitable for horizontal surfaces and
simply shaped structure
Does not require periodic watering
May cause dicoloration of concrete
surface

Various type of liquid membrane-forming
compounds can be applied by hand or
spray
Concrete surface should be damp
Should not be used when subsequent
layers of concrete are to be placed
Leaving forms in place as long as
practical, provided concrete surface is
kept wet
Other curing method can be use after
removing the forms
Used only when early strength gain in
concrete is required
Can be attained with or without pressure
For temperature below freezing
Fibreglass, cellulose fibers, sponge rubber
Should be as long as it is practical
Minimum time depends on several
factors
Type of cement
Mixture proportions
Required strength
Ambient weather
Size & shape of structure
Curing method

Usually, concrete period should be a
minimum of 7 days or until 70% of
concrete strength is attaines
Can be reduce to 3 days for high early
strength concrete is used and
temperature is above 10
o
C
Concrete ripen and grow stronger with
age & curing
The strength of properly cured concrete
at 1 day after mixing is about 10-15% of
its 28 days strength. At 7 days, it is about
50-60 percent.'
Improvement in strength of concrete
beyond a year is small
Increase of water temperature, either at
mixing stage or during curing, augments
the rate of gain in strength.

The major properties of hardened concrete
are:
Strength
Compressive
Tensile
Flexural
Modulus Of Elasticity
Durability
Creep
Shrinkage
Watertightness (impermeability)

The properties of hardened concrete
depends on:
Mix proportions (have greatest effect)
Curing conditions
Environment

Type of concrete strength
compressive strength (2000-8000 psi)
tensile strength (200-800 psi)
flexural strength
Most important property of hardened
concrete and generally considered in the
design of most concrete mixes.
Strength properties of concrete in a
structure usually estimated using test
performed on a small samples, made from
fresh concrete as it is placed in the
structure, which are cured in the laboratory
in a standard manner. (Cube test )
Cast-in-place construction : closer to low range
Precast construction : closer to high range
Quantity of cement
Amount of water
Types of ingredients
Mix proportions
Curing
Temperature
Age
Size & Shape of Aggregates
Test conditions
FACTORS AFFECTING CONCRETE STRENGTH
Alteration of the quantity & makeup of the
paste by varying the amounts and water
will give concretes with different
compressive strength.
Rate of hydration is not same for all type of
cement.
Example:
Cements containing high precentage if
Tricalcium Silicate gain strength much faster
than do cements containing more
Dicalcium Silicate.

Strength of concrete improves with
increase in the fineness modulus of the
fine aggregate.
A higher number of fineness modulus
means a coarser gradation
Increase in fineness modulus, the surface
area of particles goes up, requiring less
mixing water at the same consistency.
Decrease in amount of water improves
the compressive strength of concrete.
Larger max. size coarse aggregate with
lower water requirement can produce
strong concrete. Reduction in w/c ratio
improves the strength of concrete.
Using larger aggregate without decrease in
amount water decreases the compressive
strength
Strength of concrete could also be affected
by the type and size of coarse aggregate.
Angular & rough surface texture particles
granite aggregates may contribute to an
increment in compressive strength of up to
20% compared to concrete made with river
gravel at the same w/c ratio.
The w/c is the ratio between the weight of
water and cement in a concrete mix.
For proper hydration, w/c ratio should be 0.35
In practice, w/c 0.55-0.65, for workable
concrete
Increase in amount of mixing water, while
keeping the cement content constant would
lead to increase in the void content and the
concrete strength drops.
Increase water lead to decrease of concrete
strength
Increase in water content increase the
voids in concrete, lowering the durability,
watertightness and compressive strength.
Good dense concrete requires a sufficient
amount of cement to achieve strength,
suitable gradation to minimize the void
content & proper consolidation to remove
air bubbles trapped within the mass.
Amount of water should just be enough to
guarantee the hydration of all cement
grains.

Any excess water in the mix (water that
doesn't participate in hydration process)
hikes the amount of voids that will be filled
with air or water depending on moisture
content.
Increase in voids, diminishes the quality of
concrete.

Strength of concrete increases with age
and curing
Strength of concrete at 1 day ~ 10% -
20% of its 28 day strength
7 day strength ~ 70% of its 28 day
strength
Increase in water temperature, both
during mixing and curing makes the
strength gain faster
time
in air entire time
moist cured entire time
in air after 3 days
in air after 7 days
Strength
28
100%
Air entrainment agent lower compressive strength
of concrete
fatigue loading of ice formation within pores
Air Entraining Admixture (AEA) Must provide:
Pore size
Pore spacing
Pore specific surface area

To determine compressive strength of
concrete
Done on cylindrical specimens of 6inch
dia. And 12inch height
Compressive strength determined from
the test depends on:
Size
Shape
Moisture condition
Put concrete in mold take out
specimen from the mold after 24 hours
cured for 28 days capped and tested
in moist condition
Compressive strength, f
c
= P / (/4)d
2
P = failure load, d = cylinder diameter
Important to resist cracking from
shrinkage and temperature changes
Direct tensile strength measurements are
difficult and not usually done
Flexural or split cylinder test
Tensile strength increase with increase in
compressive strength
Factors affecting tensile strength
Variation of w/c ratio similar to
compressive strength
Increase in fineness modulus, increase
tensile strength
Type and shape of particle
Flexure test : to measure tensile strength
of concrete
Two components of concrete, cement
paste and aggregate, when tested
individually in compression, exhibit a linear
stress strain relationship
Explanation for non-linear stress-strain
relationship in concrete lies in the
development of microcracking in the
interface between the aggregate and
paste
Aggregates shape and surface
characteristic of aggregate particles also
influence the stress-strain curve
Modulus of elasticity can be interpreted to
measure the slope of the tangent to the
curve at a point on the diagram
Increase with concretes density, age
and strength
At a given strength, the elastic modulus is
largely dependant on the aggregate
used and the age at test.
Concrete made with lightweight
aggregate has much lower modulus of
elasticity compared to concrete made
with gravel aggregate (about 40& -
80%).
Modulus of Elasticity, E = w
1.5
(33) x f
c
(0.5)
E = modulus in psi, w = unit weight of
concrete in pcf, and f
c
= compressive
strength in psi
For normal concrete, E = 57,000 x f
c
(0.5)

Concrete has the greatest volume at the
time of mixing or when it is placed in
forms.
Shrinkage is the result of settlement of
solid and the loss of water
Plastic concrete
Aggregates settle down
Water and air displaced to top of
concrete
Water on the surface
evaporated with the help from
environment
Shrinkage of wet concrete
Plastic Shrinkage
PC reacts with water net reduction on
volume
Volume of solid matter (products of hydration)
increase
Continuous supply of water may expand the
concrete
Decrease in volume of plastic concrete
Concrete that is allowed to dry decreases in
volume

When plastic concrete is allowed to dry
quickly plastic shrinkage surface
cracking
Surface cracking : short irregular cracks
on the concrete surface
Common in slabs and pavements

Evaporation loss faster
than bleeding
Rapid drying of fresh
concrete
Tensile stress on the
surface leads to
shrinkage crack
Factors
affecting
plastic
shrinkage
Type of
cement
Water /
cement
ratio
Quantity
and size of
coarse
aggregate
Consistency
of the mix
Revibration prior to floating
Spraying cold water on aggregates
before mixing
Minimize evaporation loss
Water reducing & air-entraining
admixtures

Occurs in hardened concrete
Attributed to loss of water from cement
gel
Average drying shrinkage ~ 0.05% of its
length
When shrinkage is restrained cracking
Drying shrinkage is gradual decrease
with time
Type of cement
Amount of cement
Mix proportions
Size & shape of structure
Curing
Environmental conditions
Reinforcement
Keeping water per unit volume of
concrete as low as possible
Curing
Water reducing admixture
Reinforcement to control cracking
location
Fiber-reinforced concrete
Increase in strain or deformation with time
Tendency of a solid material to slowly move
or deform permanently under the influence
of stresses
Concrete creep is defined as: deformation
of structure under sustained load.
Long term pressure or stress on concrete
can make it change shape. This
deformation usually occurs in the direction
the force is being applied.
Eg: concrete column getting more
compressed, or a beam bending
Reversible creep
Elastic effect (immediate recovery)upon
unloading
Irreversible creep
Delayed recovery (after elastic effect)
permanent deformation
Influence of Aggregate
Aggregate undergoes very little creep. It is really
the paste which is responsible for the creep.
However, the aggregate influences the creep of
concrete through a restraining effect on the
magnitude of creep. The paste which is
creeping under load is restrained by aggregate
which do not creep.
It can be easily imagined that the higher the
modulus of elasticity the less is the creep. Light
weight aggregate shows substantially higher
creep than normal weight aggregate.

Influence of Mix Proportions:
The amount of paste content and its quality
is one of the most important factors
influencing creep. A poorer paste structure
undergoes higher creep. Therefore, it can be
said that creep increases with increase in
water/cement ratio.

Influence of Age:
Age at which a concrete member is loaded
will have a predominant effect on the
magnitude of creep. This can be easily
understood from the fact that the quality of
gel improves with time. Such gel creeps less,
whereas a young gel under load being not
so stronger creeps more.

Reaction between concrete and carbon
dioxide from the air
Reduce concrete quality
Starts at the surface and slowly
penetrates the concrete
Caused no serious problem : soft surface,
dusting or color change
Causes of concrete deterioration:
Alkali aggregate reaction
Freeze thaw cycle
Sulfate attack
Lead to expansion and cracking

Permeability
Ultimate compressive strength
Low strength, high permeability decrease
durability