507 33 Powerpoint-Slides Ch6 DRCS

Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved.
Design of Reinforced
Concrete Structures
N. Subramanian
Chapter 6
Design For Shear

According to traditional design philosophy, bending moment and
shear force are treated separately, even though they coexist.

It is important to realize that shear analysis and design are not really
concerned with shear as such. The shear stresses in most beams may be
below the direct shear strength of concrete.

Shear failure is often termed as diagonal tension failure.

Introduction
In the sectional design model, the flexural longitudinal reinforcement
is designed for the effects of flexure and any additional axial force, and
the transverse reinforcement is designed for shear and torsion.

In the case of slabs, this type of shear is called one-way shear, which is
different from the two-way or punching shear, which normally occurs in
flat slabs near the slab-column junctions.

The main objective of an RC designer is to produce ductile behaviour
in the members such that ample warning is provided before failure. For
this, RC beams are often provided with shear reinforcement.
Introduction
Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Beams
under Shear

The behaviour of RC beams under shear may be categorized into the
following three types:

1. Behaviour when the beam is not cracked

2. Cracked beam behaviour when no shear reinforcements are
provided

3. Cracked beam behaviour when shear reinforcements are provided
Behaviour of Uncracked Beams

The loads acting on a structural element is in equilibrium with the
reactions, and the bending moment and shear force diagrams can be
drawn for the entire span as shown in Fig. 6.1 (in the following slide).

Before cracking, the RC beam may be assumed to behave like a
homogenous beam.

Fig. 6.1 Shear force (S.F.) and bending moment (B.M.) diagrams for typical beam elements (a) Simply
supported beam with concentrated load (b) Cantilever beam (c) Simply supported beam with
uniformly distributed load (d) Continuous beam

The bending and shear stress distributions across the cross section of
rectangular beam are shown in Fig. 6.2 (in the following slide).

It should be noted that the shear stress variation is parabolic, with the
maximum value at the neutral axis and zero values at the top and
bottom of the section. Thus, the maximum shear stress is 50 per cent
more than the average shear stress.
Fig. 6.2 Flexural and shear stress variation across the cross section
of a rectangular beam

Neglecting any vertical normal stress caused by the surface loads, the
combined flexural and shear stresses can be resolved into equivalent
principal stresses acting on orthogonal planes and inclined at an angle a
to the beam axis, as shown in Figs 6.3(a)(f).

The direction of the principal compressive stresses is in the shape of
an arch, whereas that of the principal tensile stresses is in the shape of a
catenary or suspended chain.


The maximum bending stresses occur at mid-span and the direction of
stresses tends to be parallel to the axis of the beam. Near the supports,
the shear forces have the greatest value and hence the principal
stresses become inclined; greater the shear force, greater the angle of
inclination.

Since concrete is weak in tension, tension cracks as shown in Fig.
6.3(c) will develop in a direction perpendicular to the principal tensile
stresses. Thus, the compressive stress trajectories indicate the potential
crack pattern (depending on the magnitude of tensile stresses
developed).
Fig. 6.3 Stress distribution in RC beams (a) Beam with loading (b)(e) Stresses in
elements 1 and 2 (f) Principal stress distribution
Cracking of Beams
Fig. 6.4 Cracking of beams due to tensile stresses (a) Typical cracking
(b) Theoretical reinforcement required to resist such cracking
Types of Cracks
1. Near the mid-span, where the bending moment predominates, the
tensile stress trajectories are crowded and are horizontal in direction
as shown in Fig. 6.3(f). Hence, flexural cracks perpendicular to the
horizontal stress trajectories will appear even at small loads. These
flexural cracks are controlled by the longitudinal tension bars.

2. In the zones where shear and bending effects combine together, that
is, in zones midway between the support and mid-span, the cracks
may start vertically at the bottom, but will become inclined as they
approach the neutral axis due to shear stress (see Fig. 6.5). These
cracks are called flexure shear cracks.
Types of Cracks

3. Near the supports that contain concentrated compressive forces, the
stress trajectories have a complicated pattern. As shear forces are
predominant in this section, the stress trajectories are inclined (see
Fig. 6.3f) and cracks inclined at about 45 appear in the mid-depth of
the beam. These cracks are termed as web-shear cracks or diagonal
tension cracks.

4. Sometimes, inclined cracks propagate along the longitudinal tension
reinforcement towards the support. Such cracks are termed as tensile
splitting cracks or secondary cracks.

Types of Cracks
Fig. 6.5 Typical crack pattern in an RC beam
Behaviour of Beams without Shear
Reinforcement

The behaviour of beams failing in shear may vary widely, depending
on the a
v
/d ratio (shear span to effective depth ratio) and the amount of
web reinforcement (see Fig. 6.6 in the following slide).

Very short shear spans, with a
v
/d ranging from zero to one, develop
inclined cracks joining the load and the support. These cracks, in effect,
change the behaviour from beam action to arch action (see Fig. 6.7).

Such beams with the a/d ratio of zero to one are termed as deep
beams. These beams normally fail due to the anchorage failure at the
ends of the tension tie.
Reinforcement
Fig. 6.6 Effect of a/d ratio on shear strength of beams without stirrups (a) Beam, shear force, and
moment diagrams (b) Variation in shear capacity with a/d for rectangular beams
Modes of Failure in Deep Beams
Fig. 6.7 Modes of failure of deep beams (a) Arch action (b) Types of failures
Reinforcement
Beams with a/d ranging from 1 to 2.5 develop inclined cracks and
carry some additional loads due to arch action. These beams may fail by
splitting failure, bond failure, shear tension, or shear compression
failure.

For slender shear spans, having a
v
/d ratio in the range of 2.5 to 6,
When the load is applied and gradually increased, flexural cracks appear
in the mid-span of the beams. With further increase of load, inclined
shear cracks develop in the beams which are sometimes called primary
shear cracks.

Very slender beams, with a/d ratio greater than 6.0, will fail in flexure
prior to the formation of inclined cracks.
Reinforcement
Fig. 6.8 Behaviour of beam without shear reinforcement (a) Typical crack pattern (b) Typical failure of
beam without shear reinforcement (c) Shear compression failure
Types of Shear or Web Reinforcements
Shear or web reinforcements, called stirrups, links, or studs, may be
provided to resist shear in several different ways such as the following:

1. Stirrups perpendicular to the longitudinal flexural (tension)
reinforcement of the member, normally vertical (Fig. 6.9a in the
following slide).

2. Inclined stirrups making an angle of 45 or more with the
longitudinal flexural reinforcement of the member (Fig. 6.9b)

3. Bent-up longitudinal reinforcement, making an angle of 30 or
more with the longitudinal flexural reinforcement (Fig. 6.9c)

4. Welded wire mesh, which should not be used in potential plastic
hinge locations (Fig. 6.9d). They are used in small, lightly loaded
members with thin webs and in some precast beams

5. Spirals (Fig. 6.9e)

6. Combination of stirrups and bent-up longitudinal reinforcement (Fig.
6.9f)


7. Mechanically anchored bars (head studs) with end bearing plates or
a head having an area of at least 10 times the cross-sectional area of
bars

8. Diagonally reinforced members

9. Steel fibres in potential plastic hinge locations of members
Fig. 6.9 Types and arrangement of stirrups (a) Vertical stirrups (b) Inclined stirrups
(c) Longitudinal bent bars (d) Welded wire fabric (e) Spirals (f) Combined bent bars and vertical
stirrups
The presence of stirrups contributes to the strength of shear
mechanisms in the following ways:

1. They carry part of the shear.

2. They improve the contribution of the dowel action. The stirrup
can effectively support a longitudinal bar that is being crossed by a
flexural shear crack close to a stirrup.

3. They limit the opening of diagonal cracks within the elastic range,
thus enhancing and aiding the shear transfer by aggregate interlock.
Stirrups in Shear Mechanisms
4. When stirrups are closely spaced, they provide confinement to the core
concrete, thus increasing the compression strength of concrete, which will be
helpful in the locations affected by the arch action.

5. They prevent the breakdown of bond when splitting cracks develop in the
anchorage zones because of the dowel and anchorage forces.

6. The strength of the concrete tooth between two adjacent shear cracks of
the beam and located below the neutral axis is important for developing shear
strength. The stirrups suppress the flexural tensile stresses in the cantilever
blocks by means of the diagonal compressive force resulting from the truss
action.
Stirrups in Shear Mechanisms
Vertical Stirrups

The transverse reinforcement in the form of shear stirrups will usually
be vertical and taken around the outermost tension and compression
longitudinal reinforcements along the faces of the beam, as shown in
Fig. 6.10. In T- and I-beams, they should pass around the longitudinal
bars located close to the outer face of the web.

The most common types are shown in Figs 6.10(a)(e). The stirrup
arrangements shown in Figs 6.10(a)(e) are not closed at the top and
hence their placement at site is relatively easy compared to the closed
stirrups. However, they should be used in beams with negligible
torsional moment.

Vertical Stirrups
Closed stirrups, which are suitable for beams with significant torsion
and in earthquake zones, are shown in Figs 6.10(f)(k).

The vertical hoop is a closed stirrup having a 135 hook with a 610
diameter extension at each end that is embedded in the confined core
(see Figs 6.10f and j).

It can also be made of two pieces of reinforcement as shown in Fig.
6.10(g) with a U-stirrup having a 135 hook and a 10 diameter extension
at each end, embedded in concrete core and a cross-tie. It is also
possible to have the cross-tie with a 135 hook at one end and 90 hook
at the other end for easy fabrication, as shown in Figs 6.10(h) and (k).
The hooks engage peripheral longitudinal bars.

Vertical Stirrups
Fig 6.10 Types of vertical stirrups (a)(e) Open stirrups for beams with negligible torsion
(f)(i) Closed stirrups with significant torsion (j)(k) Detail of 135 hook
Bent-up Bars

The performance of bent-up bars in shear is
illustrated in Fig. 6.11 (in the following slide).
As seen in this figure, large stresses
concentrate in the region of such bars,
leading to the splitting of concrete when
spaced far apart or when placed
asymmetrically with reference to the vertical
axis of cross section.
Bent-up Bars
Fig. 6.11 Performance of bent-up bars in shear
Disadvantages of Bent-up Bars

1. They are widely spaced and are few in number. Hence, a crack may
not be intercepted by more than one bar, thus resulting in wider
cracks than those in beams with stirrups.

2. When some of the bars at a section are bent up, the remaining
flexural bars are subjected to higher stresses, resulting in wider
flexural cracks.

3. Concrete at the bends may be subjected to splitting forces, resulting
in possible web cracking.
Disadvantages of Bent-up Bars

4. They do not confine the concrete in the shear region.

5. Reduction of flexural steel due to bent-up bars may result in the
shifting of the neutral axis upwards, causing wider cracks in the
tension zone.

6. They are less efficient in tying the compression flange and web
together.
Inclined Stirrups

Inclined stirrups are similar to vertical stirrups, except that they are
placed at an angle of about 45 to the longitudinal axis of the beam.
Their behaviour is similar to the bent-up bars.

As they are nearly perpendicular to the cracks, they are more efficient
than all other shear reinforcements.

Advantages of Inclined Stirrups

1. They can be closely spaced, and hence the cracks may be
intercepted by more than one bar, resulting in less wider cracks than
those in beams with bent-up bars.

2. They confine the concrete in the shear region.

3. They are efficient as vertical stirrups in tying the compression flange
and web together.

Disadvantages of Inclined Stirrups

1. They are difficult to fabricate and construct.

2. When there is a reversal of shear force (due to earthquakes), they
may be inefficient.
Spirals

Helical reinforcement in RC columns results in increase in strength of
core concrete and ductility due to confinement reinforcement.

If the correct pitch is utilized for effective confinement, helical
reinforcement will provide an economical solution for enhancing the
strength of flexural members.

Spirals
Fig 6.12 Ways of providing spirals (a) Spirals (tensile zone) (b) Spirals (compression zone)
(c) Double spirals (d) Interlocking spirals
Headed Studs

Conventional stirrups are being increasingly replaced by headed studs,
which are smooth or deformed bars provided with forged or welded
heads for anchorage at one or both the ends (see next slide).

The two common types are the single-headed studs welded to a
continuous base rail and the double-headed studs welded to spacer
rails. The base rail is used to position the studs at the required spacing,
which is determined by readymade software or calculation.

Headed Studs
Fig. 6.13 Headed stud with deformed stem
and heads at both ends
Headed Studs

To be fully effective, the size of the heads should be
capable of developing the specified yield strength of the
studs.

When the studs are used, it is not essential to place
longitudinal bars behind the heads. Without the
longitudinal bars, the heads can produce sufficient
anchorage to develop yield force in the studs.

Headed studs reduce congestion in beam-column
joints and in zones of lap splices.
Steel Fibres

Fibre-reinforced concrete (FRC) with a minimum volume fraction of
0.5 per cent fibres can be used to replace minimum shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement.

Steel fibres (crimped or hooked) increase the post-cracking resistance
across an inclined crack, which in turn increases the aggregate interlock
and shear resistance of concrete. The use of fibres also results in
multiple inclined cracks and gradual shear failure.
Advantages of Steel Fibres

The replacement of stirrups by fibres in FRC has the following
advantages:
1. The random distribution of fibres throughout the volume of
concrete at much closer spacing than is practical for the stirrups
can lead to distributed cracking with reduced crack width.

2. The first-crack tensile strength and the ultimate tensile strength
of the concrete are increased by the fibres.

3. The shear friction strength is increased by resistance to pull-out
and by fibres bridging cracks.

Behaviour of Beams with
Shear / Web Reinforcements

When a beam with transverse shear reinforcement is loaded, most of
the shear force is initially carried by the concrete. Between flexural and
inclined cracking, the external shear is resisted by the concrete the
interface shear transfer, and the dowel action.

The first branch of shear cracking of the beams with transverse
reinforcement is typically the same in nature as that of beams without
transverse reinforcement. The shear crack in this case also involves two
branches.


The formation of the second crack and the corresponding load may be
assumed to be the same, as shown in Fig. 6.11 (in the following slide).

The presence of shear reinforcements restricts the growth of diagonal
cracks and reduces their penetration into the compression zone.

Cracked RC transmits shear in a relatively complex manner. The
highest reinforcement stresses and the lowest concrete tensile stresses
occur at the cracks.
Fig. 6.14 Distribution of internal shears in beam with web reinforcement
Factors Affecting Shear Strength of
Concrete

1. Tensile strength of concrete: The inclined cracking load in shear is a
function of the tensile strength of concrete.

2. Longitudinal reinforcement ratio: The shear strength of the RC
beams is found to drop significantly if the longitudinal reinforcement
ratio is decreased below 1.21.5 per cent.

3. Shear span to effective depth ratio: Its effect is pronounced when a
v
/d is less than two and has no effect when it is greater than six.
Factors Affecting Shear Strength of
Concrete
4. Lightweight aggregate concrete: They reduce tensile strength than
concrete with normal aggregates.

5. Size of beam: As the depth of the beam increases, the shear stress
at failure decreases.

6. Axial forces : Axial tension decreases the inclined cracking load and
the shear strength of concrete, whereas axial compression does just
the opposite.

7. Size of coarse aggregate: Increasing the size of coarse aggregates
increases the roughness of the crack surfaces, thus allowing higher
shear stresses to be transferred across the cracks.
Size Effect

With increasing beam depth, the crack spacing and crack width tend
to increase.

Fig. 6.15 shows that the shear stress at failure decreases when the
member depth increases or the maximum aggregate size decreases.

Failure shear stress does not significantly change when the width of
beams is increased.

Size Effect

Crack widths increase nearly linearly with the tensile strain in
reinforcement and the spacing between cracks.

The size effects are mitigated considerably if the depth of the beam is
less than 1 m. However, in beams having depths greater than 1 m, the
size effect cannot be neglected.

Size effect is not felt in beams with web reinforcement.
Size Effect
Fig 6.15 Influence of member depth and maximum aggregate size on shear stress at failure
Case Study
Design Shear Strength of Concrete in
Beams

The design shear strength of concrete depends on factors such as the
following:

1. Grade of concrete
2. Longitudinal reinforcement ratio
3. Shear span to depth ratio
4. Type of aggregate used
5. Size of beam
6. Axial force
7. Size of coarse aggregate used

Design Shear Strength of Concrete in
Beams
Maximum Shear Stress: The shear strength of beams cannot be
increased beyond a certain limit, even with the addition of closely
spaced shear reinforcement because large shear forces in the beam will
result in compressive stresses that may cause crushing of web concrete.

Effects Due to Loading Condition: The shear strength of beams, either
slender or deep, under the uniform load is much higher than that of
beams under a loading arrangement of two concentrated loads at
quarter points or one concentrated load at mid-span. In this case, the
splitting failure along the line of the second branch of the critical
diagonal crack occurs near the support reaction and not near a
concentrated load.

Critical Section for Shear
Before designing the beam for shear, the
critical section for shear should first be
located.
The maximum shear force in a beam usually
occurs at the face of the support and reduces
progressively away from the support.
When there are concentrated loads, shear
force remains high in the span between the
support and the first concentrated load (Figs
6.16af).

Clause 22.6.2 of IS 456 allows a section located at a distance d (effective
depth) from the face of the support to be treated as a critical section in
the following cases (see Figs 6.16ac):

1. Support reaction, in the direction of applied shear force,
introduces compression into the end regions of the member.

2. Loads are applied at or near the top of the member.

3. No concentrated load occurs between the face of the support and
the location of the critical section, which is at a distance d from
the face of the support.

This clause cannot be applied in the following situations:

1.Beams framing into a supporting member in tension (see Fig.
6.16d)

2.Beams loaded near the bottom, as in the case of inverted beam
(see Fig. 6.16e)

3.Concentrated load introduced within a distance 2d from the face
of the support, as in the beam on the left side of Fig. 6.16(b). In
this case, closely spaced stirrups should be designed and provided
in the region between the support and the concentrated load.
Fig. 6.16 Critical sections for shear near support (a)(c) Critical section at a distance d from
the face of the support (d)(f) Critical section at the face of the support
Enhanced Shear Strength near Supports

It has been observed from tests that shear failure at sections of beams
and cantilevers without shear reinforcement occurs at a plane inclined
at an angle 30 as shown in Fig. 6.17a (in the following slide).

When the failure plane is inclined more steeply than this, the shear
force required to produce the failure is increased (see Fig. 6.17b in the
following slide).

Fig. 6.17 Enhanced shear strength (a) Steep failure plane (b) Influence of shear span to depth ratio

A good design is one in which shear failure is
eliminated & the flexure governs the design .

Hence, reducing the shear reinforcement near the
supports and increasing the vulnerability to shear
failure, is not advisable, especially in seismic zones.

The reduction in the quantity of shear
reinforcement achieved through clause 40.5 of IS
456 is marginal and hence it is better to ignore it.

When the principal tensile stress within the shear span exceeds the
tensile strength of concrete, diagonal tension cracks are initiated in the
web of concrete beams. These cracks later propagate through the beam
web, resulting in brittle and sudden collapse. When shear
reinforcements are provided, they restrain the growth of inclined
cracking.

Minimum shear reinforcement should be provided in all the beams
when the calculated nominal shear stress is less than half of design
shear strength of concrete. The minimum shear reinforcement is also a
function of concrete strength.

Minimum and Maximum Shear
Reinforcement
In seismic regions, web reinforcement is required in most beams
because the shear strength of the concrete is taken as equal to zero if
the earthquake-induced shear exceeds half the total shear.

Maximum Spacing: The maximum yield strength of web
reinforcement is limited to avoid the difficulties encountered in bending
high-strength stirrups (they may be brittle near sharp bends) and also to
prevent excessively wide inclined cracks.

Upper Limit on Area of Shear Reinforcement: Maximum shear
reinforcement are proportional to the square root of the concrete
compressive strength as per the Indian code.

Minimum and Maximum Shear
Reinforcement
Minimum Shear Reinforcement
Fig. 6.18 Minimum shear reinforcement as a function of f
c
as per different codes
The RitterMrsch Truss Model

The truss model was originally introduced by Ritter, who proposed a
45 truss model for computing the shear strength of the RC members;
this model was refined by Mrsch.

Ritter assumed that after the cracking of concrete, the behaviour of an
RC member is similar to that of a truss with a top longitudinal concrete
chord, a bottom longitudinal steel chord (consisting of longitudinal
reinforcement), vertical steel ties (stirrups), and diagonal concrete struts
inclined at 45, as shown in Fig. 6.19(a).

It was further assumed that the diagonally cracked concrete cannot
resist tension and the shear force is resisted by transverse steel,
commonly referred to as the steel contribution and the uncracked
concrete contribution.

When a shear force is applied to this truss, the concrete struts are
subjected to compression whereas tension is produced in the transverse
ties and in longitudinal chords.

The design of stirrups is usually based on the vertical component of
diagonal tension, whereas the horizontal component is resisted by the
longitudinal tensile steel of the beam.

Fig. 6.19 Truss models for beams with web reinforcement (a) RitterMrsch truss model
(b) Variable angle truss model

The concrete contribution is generally considered to be a combination
of force transfer by the dowel action of the main flexural steel,
aggregate interlock along a diagonal crack, and uncracked concrete
beyond the end of the crack.

It is also difficult to calculate the exact proportion of each of these
forces. Hence, it was vaguely rationalized to adopt the diagonal cracking
load of the beam without web reinforcement as the concrete
contribution to the shear strength of an identical beam with web
reinforcement.


Experience with the 45 truss analogy revealed that the results of this
model were quite conservative, particularly for beams with small
amounts of web reinforcement.
The truss model does not consider the size effects.

The truss model has been modified by several others in the past 30
years.

Based on that, it was realized that the angle of inclination of the
concrete struts, q, may be in the range 2565, instead of the constant
45 assumed in the RitterMrsch model. These developments lead to
the variable angle truss model.

Design of Vertical and Inclined
Stirrups
Fig. 6.20 Design of stirrups (a) Vertical stirrups (b) Inclined stirrups

The modified compression field theory (MCFT) developed by Collins,
Vecchio, and Bentz uses the strain conditions in the web to determine
the inclination q of the diagonal compressive stresses (see Fig. 6.21).

The equilibrium conditions, compatibility conditions, and stressstrain
relationships (constitutive relationships) are formulated in terms of
average stresses and average strains.

Modified Compression Field Theory

Figure 6.21 gives the 15 equations used in MCFT. The MCFT assumed
that the directions of the inclined compression field (i.e., the strut angle
and the crack angle) and the principal compressive stress coincide.

Solving the equations of the MCFT is tedious, if attempted by hand,
and hence software programs called Membrane-2000 and Response-
2000 were developed.

Over the last 20 years, the MCFT has been applied to the analysis of
numerous RC structures and found to provide accurate simulations of
behaviour.
Modified Compression Field Theory
Fig. 6.21 Equations of modified compression field theory
Design Procedure for Shear
Reinforcement
The design of an RC beam for shear using vertical stirrups involves the
following steps:

1.Determine the maximum factored shear force V
u
at the critical
sections of the member (see Fig. 6.13).

2.Check the adequacy of the section for shear. Compute the nominal
shear stress and check whether it is less than the maximum
permissible shear stress. If it is greater than the maximum
permissible shear stress, increase the size of the section or the
grade of concrete and recalculate steps 1 and 2.

Reinforcement

3. Determine the shear strength provided by the concrete (for the
percentage of tensile reinforcement available at the critical section)
V
c
.

4. If V
u
> V
c
, shear reinforcements have to be provided for V
us
= V
u
V
c
.

5. Compute the distance from the support beyond which only minimum
shear reinforcement is required.

Reinforcement

6. Design of stirrups: Where stirrups are required, it is usually
advantageous to select a bar size and type and determine the
required spacing. The spacing for vertical stirrups is calculated as:

In regions where only minimum stirrups are required, it is:

6. Check anchorage requirements and details.


In wide beams with large number of longitudinal rods and carrying
heavy shear forces (such as those encountered in raft foundations), it is
advisable to provide multi-legged stirrups, so that the longitudinal
forces are evenly distributed among the longitudinal rods of the beam.

The effectiveness of the shear reinforcement decreases as the spacing
of the web reinforcement legs across the width of the member
increases.

Transverse Spacing of Stirrups in
Wide Beams

The bent-up bars should be anchored adequately. The development
length should be provided in the compression zone, measuring from the
mid-depth of the beam. If the bent-up bars are anchored in the tension
zone, the development length can be measured from the end of the
sloping or inclined portion of the bar.

Fig. 6.22 Anchoring of bent-up bars
Anchoring of Bent-up Bars
Anchoring of Shear Stirrups
The stirrups should be well anchored to develop the yield stress in the
vertical legs, as follows:

1. The stirrups should be bent close to the compression and
tension surfaces, satisfying the minimum cover.

2. The ends of the stirrups should be anchored by standard hooks.

3. Each bend of the stirrups should be around a longitudinal bar. The
diameter of the longitudinal bar should not be less than the
diameter of the stirrups.

Anchoring of Shear Stirrups

In addition to providing anchorage, these specifications are provided for
other reasons too, including the following:

1. Constructability purposes

2. Prevention of presumed concrete crushing at the corner of the
stirrup, resulting from the high stress concentrations that develop in
this region when the member is loaded
Shear Design of Flanged Beams

The behaviour and cracking pattern of T-beams under two-point
loading or one-point loading in the middle of the beam are similar to
that of rectangular beams.

An increase in the shear capacity results from an increase of the cross-
sectional area of the compressive zone of a beam. It has been found
that the shear capacity of T-beams is 3040 per cent higher than the
shear strength of their web. This increased strength is due to the size of
the flanges, an increase in the tensile strength of concrete, and the
neutral axis depth.

Concept of Shear Funnel
To account for the effect of flange thickness on the shear area of the T-
beams, the concept of shear funnel was developed where the area of
concrete bounded by the neutral axis and the two angled lines is
defined as the effective shear area.
Fig. 6.23 Concept of shear funnel (a) Neutral axis within flange
(b) Neutral axis outside flange

Beams of varying depth are encountered in haunched beams. In such
members, it is necessary to account for the contribution of the vertical
component of the flexural tensile force T
u
, which is inclined at an angle b
to the longitudinal direction, in the nominal shear stress, t
v
.

The following two cases may arise in practice:
1. The bending moment increases numerically in the same direction
in which the effective depth increases.
2. The bending moment decreases numerically in the direction in
which the effective depth increases.
Shear Design of Beams with Varying
Depth

A similar situation arises in tapered base slabs or footings, where
flexural compression is inclined to the longitudinal axis of the beam,
since the compression face may be sloping.

In the case of cantilever beams, the depth increases in the same
direction as the bending moment.
Depth
Depth
Fig. 6.24 Beams of variable depth (a) Bending moment increases with increasing depth
(b) Bending moment decreases with increasing depth
Shear Design of Beams Located in
Earthquake Zones

When there is a reversal of stresses, due to earthquakes or reversed
wind directions, the shear strength of concrete cannot be relied upon,
as the cracks will criss-cross the cross section and hence cracked
concrete will be present in the tension and compression zones.

Hence, the stirrups should be designed to take the entire shear with
zero contribution from concrete.

In earthquake zones, only vertical closed stirrups or those placed
perpendicular to the member axis are to be used, with 135 hooks.

Earthquake Zones
According to Clause 6.3.3 of IS 13920:1993, the shear capacity of the
beam shall be more than the following:
1. Calculated factored shear force as per analysis

2. Shear force due to the formation of plastic hinges at both ends of
the beam plus the factored gravity load on the span (see Fig. 6.21 in
the following slide).

Clause 6.3.3 of IS 13920:1993 ensures that a brittle shear failure does
not precede the actual yielding of the beam in flexure.
Earthquake Zones
Fig. 6.25 Calculation of design shear force in case of earthquake loading
Stirrup Arrangement for Beams
Located in Earthquake Zones
Fig. 6.26 Stirrup arrangement for beams located in earthquake zones
Shear in Beams with High-strength
Concrete and High-strength Steel
HSC beams exhibited increased capacity and improved hysteretic
performance compared to NSC beams. Flexure deformation-dominated
ductile responses were achieved by designing the beam shear strength
based on the seismic provision of the current ACI 318 code.

Beams made of HSC were found to exhibit more significant size effect
than NSC beams.

The width of the diagonal cracks is directly related to the strain in the
stirrups. Hence, the Indian and US codes do not permit the design yield
stress of stirrups to exceed 415 MPa. This requirement limits the width
of cracks that can develop. When the width of the crack is limited, the
aggregate interlock is enhanced.


A further advantage of a limited yield stress is that the required
anchorage length at the top of the stirrups is not as stringent as it would
be for stirrups with higher yield strength. Pairing high-strength steel
(HSS) with HSC is more beneficial.

The limitation of 420 MPa for design yield stress of stirrups is relaxed
for deformed welded wire fabric because research has shown the use of
higher strength wires to be quite satisfactory.

The width of inclined shear cracks at service loads is found to be less
for beams with higher strength wire fabric than for beams with stirrups
having yield strength of 415 MPa.
Fig. 6.27 Comparison for HSC beams with different transverse reinforcement details (a) HSC beam
with 10 mm diameter stirrups (b) HSC beam with 6 mm diameter stirrups
Shear Design Beams with Web Opening
Transverse openings are provided in concrete beams for
accommodating utility services, which will result in compact design and
overall saving in terms of total building height. The provision of
openings changes the behaviour of the beam from a simple one to a
more complex one.

Although numerous shapes of openings are possible, circular (to
accommodate service pipes) and rectangular (to accommodate air-
conditioning ducts) openings are most common.

The openings must be located in such a way that no potential failure
planes passing through several openings could develop.


Entire shear resistance may be assigned to the compression chord.
Longitudinal and transverse reinforcements should be placed in both
sides of the opening to resist 1.5 times the shear force and bending
moment generated by the shear across the opening (see Fig. 6.28 in the
following slide).

To control the horizontal splitting and diagonal tension cracks at the
corners of the opening, transverse reinforcements should be designed
for two times the design shear force and provided over a distance not
less than 0.5d on both sides of the opening (see Fig. 6.28 in the
following slide).
Fig. 6.28 Beams with large web openings
Shear Strength of Members with
Axial Force

The beams in moment-resistant frames are often subjected to axial
forces in addition to the bending moments and shears. Columns are also
subjected to axial loads, bending moments, and shear forces.

Axial tensile forces tend to decrease the shear strength of concrete,
whereas axial compression tends to increase it.

The compressive force acts like prestressing and delays the onset of
flexural cracking; also, flexural cracks do not penetrate to a greater
extent into the beam.

Shear Strength of Members with
Axial Force

Tensile forces directly increase the stress
and hence the strain in the longitudinal
reinforcement.

Axial tension increases the inclined crack
width and reduces the aggregate interlock,
and hence, the shear strength provided by
the concrete is reduced.
Design of Stirrups at Steel
Cut-off Points
Longitudinal tension reinforcement is often curtailed in order to
provide the required reduced area of steel in locations where the
bending moment is less than the maximum value.

The termination of flexural tensile reinforcement gives rise to sharp
discontinuity in the steel, causing early appearance of flexural cracks,
which in turn may turn into diagonal shear cracks.

Clause 26.2.3.1 of IS 456 insists that the bars should extend beyond
the theoretical cut-off point to reduce stress concentration.

Design of Stirrups at Steel
Cut-off Points
Clause 26.2.3.2 of IS 456 stipulates that flexural reinforcement in beams
may be terminated in the tension zone, only if any one of the following
conditions is satisfied:
1. The shear at the cut-off point does not exceed 2/3 of V
u
(i.e., cut-
off is allowed in low shear zones).

2. Extra shear reinforcements are provided over a distance equal to
0.75d from the cut-off point.

3. When 36 mm diameter or smaller bars are used, excess flexural
steel is available (continuing bars provide double the area
required for flexure) along with excess shear capacity (shear
capacity is greater than 1.33 V
u
).
Shear Friction

The concept of Shear friction is used where direct shear is transferred
across a given plane.

The situations where this concept will be useful include the interface
between concretes cast at different times, interface between concrete
and steel, connections of precast constructions, and corbels (see Fig.
6.29).

The correct application of this concept depends on the proper
selection of the assumed location of crack or slip. The reinforcement
must be provided crossing the potential or actual crack or shear plane to
prevent direct shear failure.
Shear Friction
Fig. 6.29 Locations of potential cracks where shear friction concept is applied
The shear friction design method is quite simple and the behaviour can
be easily visualized as follows (see Figs 6.30a-c):

1. A cracked block of concrete with the intercepted reinforcement is
assumed. The shear force acts parallel to the crack, and the
tendency for the upper block to slip relative to the lower block
has to be resisted by the friction along the interface of the crack,
by the resistance to the shearing off of protrusions on the crack
faces, and by the dowel action of the reinforcement crossing the
crack.

Shear Friction Design Method
2. The dowel effect is usually neglected for simplicity, and to
compensate for this factor a high value of friction coefficient is
assumed. The irregular surface may separate the two blocks slightly,
as shown in Fig. 6.30(b). If the crack surface is rough, the coefficient
of friction may be high. The reinforcement provides a clamping
force across the crack faces.

While using the shear friction method of design, reinforcement should
be well anchored to develop the yield strength of steel, by full
development length, hooks, or bends in the case of reinforcement bars
and by proper heads or welding in the case of studs joining the
concrete to structural steel.


The shear friction reinforcement anchorage should engage the
primary reinforcement; otherwise, a potential crack may pass between
the shear friction reinforcement and the body of the concrete.

Care must be exercised to consider all possible failure planes and to
provide sufficient well-anchored reinforcement across the planes.
Basis of Shear Friction Design
Fig. 6.30 Basis of shear friction design (a) Applied shear (b) Enlarged crack surface
(c) Free body of concrete above crack
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