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Antennas and Wave Propagation


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An antenna is a device that provides a transition between
guided electromagnetic waves in wires and electromagnetic
waves in free space.
An antenna is a transducer that converts RF electric current to
EM waves that then radiated into space.
Antenna Fundamentals
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Antenna Fundamentals
The interface between the transmitter and
free space and between free space and the
receiver is the antenna.
At the transmitting end the antenna converts
the transmitter RF power into electromagnetic
signals; at the receiving end the antenna picks
up the electromagnetic signals and converts
them into signals for the receiver.
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Antenna Fundamentals
Radio Waves
A radio signal is called an electromagnetic wave
because it is made up of both electric and
magnetic fields.
Whenever voltage is applied to the antenna, an
electric field is set up.
This voltage causes current to flow in the antenna,
producing a magnetic field.
These fields are emitted from the antenna and
propagate through space at the speed of light.
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Antenna Fundamentals
Radio Waves: Magnetic Fields
A magnetic field is an invisible force field created by a
magnet.
An antenna is a type of electromagnet.
A magnetic field is generated around a conductor
when current flows through it.
The strength and direction of the magnetic field
depend upon the magnitude and direction of the
current flow.
The SI unit for magnetic field strength is ampere-turns
per meter.
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Antenna Fundamentals
Figure 14-1: Magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor. Magnetic field strength
H in ampere-turns per meter = H = I I(2 d).
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Antenna Fundamentals
Radio Waves: Electric Field
An electric field is an invisible force field produced by
the presence of a potential difference between two
conductors.
For example, an electric field is produced between the
plates of a charged capacitor.
An electric field exists between any two points across
which a potential difference exists.
The SI unit for electric field strength is volts per meter.
Permittivity is the dielectric constant of the material
between the two conductors.
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Antenna Fundamentals
Figure 14-2: Electric field across the plates of a capacitor.
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Antenna Fundamentals
Radio Waves: Magnetic and Electric Fields in a
Transmission Line
At any given time in a two-wire transmission line, the
wires have opposite polarities.
During one-half cycle of the ac input, one wire is
positive and the other is negative.
During the negative half-cycle, the polarity reverses.
The direction of the electric field between the wires
reverses once per cycle.
The direction of current flow in one wire is always
opposite that in the other wire. Therefore, the
magnetic fields combine.
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Antenna Fundamentals
Radio Waves: Magnetic and Electric Fields in a
Transmission Line
A transmission line is made up of a conductor or
conductors.
Transmission lines do not radiate signals efficiently.
The closeness of the conductors keeps the electric
field concentrated in the transmission line dielectric.
The magnetic fields mostly cancel one another.
The electric and magnetic fields do extend outward
from the transmission line, but the small amount of
radiation that does occur is extremely inefficient.
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Antenna Fundamentals
Figure 14-3: (a) Magnetic and electric fields around a transmission line. (b) Electric
field. (c) Magnetic fields.
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Antenna Fundamentals
Antenna Operation: The Nature of an Antenna
If a parallel-wire transmission line is left open, the
electric and magnetic fields escape from the end
of the line and radiate into space.
This radiation is inefficient and unsuitable for
reliable transmission or reception.
The radiation from a transmission line can be
greatly improved by bending the transmission-line
conductors so they are at a right angle to the
transmission line.
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Antenna Fundamentals
Antenna Operation: The Nature of an Antenna
The magnetic fields no longer cancel; they now aid
one another.
The electric field spreads out from conductor to
conductor.
Optimum radiation occurs if the segment of
transmission wire converted into an antenna is
one quarter wavelength long at the operating
frequency.
This makes an antenna that is one-half wavelength
long.
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Antenna Fundamentals
Figure 14-5: Converting a transmission line into an antenna. (a) An open transmission
line radiates a little. (b) Bending the open transmission line at right angles creates
an efficient radiation pattern.
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Antenna Fundamentals
Antenna Operation
The ratio of the electric field strength of a radiated
wave to the magnetic field strength is a constant
and is called the impedance of space, or the wave
impedance.
The electric and magnetic fields produced by the
antenna are at right angles to one another, and
are both perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave.
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Antenna Fundamentals
Antenna Operation
Antennas produce two sets of fields, the near
field and the far field.
The near field describes the region directly around the
antenna where the electric and magnetic fields are
distinct.
The far field is approximately 10 wavelengths from the
antenna. It is the radio wave with the composite
electric and magnetic fields.
Polarization of anteena refers to the orientation
of electric fields with respect to the earth.

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Antenna Fundamentals
Antenna Reciprocity
Antenna reciprocity means that the
characteristics and performance of an antenna are
the same whether the antenna is radiating or
intercepting an electromagnetic signal.
A transmitting antenna takes a voltage from the
transmitter and converts it into an
electromagnetic signal.
A receiving antenna has a voltage induced into it
by the electromagnetic signal that passes across
it.
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Antenna Fundamentals
The Basic Antenna
An antenna can be a length of wire, a metal rod,
or a piece of tubing.
Antennas radiate most effectively when their
length is directly related to the wavelength of the
transmitted signal.
Most antennas have a length that is some fraction
of a wavelength.
One-half and one-quarter wavelengths are most
common.
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Polarization
The polarization of an antenna refers to the orientation of
the electric field it produces.
Polarization is important because the receiving antenna
should have the same polarization as the transmitting
antenna to maximize received power
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Polarization of EM waves, direction of electric field
w.r.to ground
Polarization:- Linear, Circular, Elliptical
Linear:-Vertical, Horizontal
A linearly vertically polarized signal shown in the
figure below
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Polarization
Linear polarized signal is a transverse EM
waves whose electrical field vector lies along a
straight line at all times. In linear polarization,
the path of the electric field vector is back and
forth along a line.
Horizontal Polarization
Vertical Polarization
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Radiation Pattern
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Radiation Pattern
The radiation pattern of an antenna is a plot of the relative field
strength of the radio waves emitted by the antenna at different
angles.
It is typically represented by a three dimensional graph, or polar
plots of the horizontal and vertical cross sections. It is a plot of
field strength in V/m versus the angle in degrees.
The pattern of an ideal isotropic antenna , which radiates
equally in all directions, would look like a sphere.
Many non-directional antennas, such as dipoles, emit equal
power in all horizontal directions, with the power dropping off
at higher and lower angles; this is called an omni directional
pattern.
In a directional antenna designed to project radio waves in a
particular direction, the lobe in that direction is designed larger
than the others and is called the "main lobe".
The other lobes usually represent unwanted radiation and are
called sidelobes".
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Beam width
Beam-width of an antenna is defined as angular separation
between the two half power points on power density
radiation pattern OR
Angular separation between two 3dB down points on the field
strength of radiation pattern
It is expressed in degrees

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Beam width
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Definition
Directive gain
Antenna Resistance
Radiation resistance
Antenna Efficiency
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Resonant and Non resonant Antenna
According to length of transmission lines available, antennas
generally fall in one of two categories:
1. Resonant Antennas is a transmission line, the length of
which is exactly equal to multiples of half wavelength and it is
open at both ends.
2.Non-resonant Antennas the length of these antennas is not
equal to exact multiples of half wavelength. In these antennas
standing waves are not present as antennas are terminated in
correct impedance which avoid reflections. The waves travel
only in forward direction .Non-resonant antenna is a
unidirectional antenna.

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Resonant Antenna
Resonant antenna corresponds to
transmission line with a open circuit. Both
ends are open, the length of antenna may
multiple of wavelngth/2 (/2).
Bidirectional antenna
Used for narrow bandwidth
E.g.;- half-wave dipole antenna

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Non-Resonant Antenna
Non-Resonant antenna corresponds to
transmission line terminated with a
characteristics impedance- no standing
waves(No reflection)
Unidirectional antenna.
Rhombic antenna

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Grounded & Ungrounded antenna

Grounded antenna
Ungrounded antenna
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Antenna arrays
Antenna arrays is group of antennas or antenna
elements arranged to provide desired directional
characteristics.
Generally any combination of elements can form an
array.
However equal elements of regular geometry are
usually used.
If some antenna elements are not electrically
connected, these elements are called parasitic
elements.


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Antenna arrays
Parasitic Arrays
A parasitic array consists of a basic antenna
connected to a transmission line plus one or more
additional conductors that are not connected to
the transmission line.
These extra conductors are referred to as parasitic
elements and the antenna is called a driven
element.

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Broadside Antenna
Driven Arrays: Broadside Antenna
A broadside array is a stacked collinear antenna
consisting of half-wave dipoles spaced from one
another by one-half wavelengths.
This antenna produces a highly directional
radiation pattern that is broadside or
perpendicular to the plane of the array.
The broadside antenna is bidirectional in
radiation, but the radiation pattern has a very
narrow beam width and high gain.

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Figure : A broadside array.
Broadside Antenna
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End-Fire Antenna
Driven Arrays: End-Fire Antenna
The end-fire array uses two half-wave dipoles
spaced one-half wavelength apart.
The end-fire array has a bidirectional radiation
pattern, but with narrower beam widths and
lower gain.
The radiation is in the plane of the driven
elements.
A highly unidirectional antenna can be created by
careful selection of the optimal number of
elements with the appropriately related spacing.
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End-Fire Antenna
Figure : End-fire antennas. (a) Bidirectional. (b) Unidirectional.
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Log-Periodic Antennas
Driven Arrays: Log-Periodic Antennas
A special type of driven array is the wide-
bandwidth log-periodic antenna.
The lengths of the driven elements vary from long
to short and are related logarithmically. The
spacing is also variable.
The great advantage of the log-periodic antenna
over a Yagi or other array is its very wide
bandwidth.
The driving impedance is constant over this range.
Most TV antennas in use today are of the log-
periodic variety so that they can provide high gain
and directivity on both VHF and UHF TV channels.
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Log-Periodic Antennas
Log-periodic antenna.
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Antenna types
Dipole antenna
Half wave, folded dipole
Loop antenna
Ferrite rod antenna ( Am receiver)
Directional high frequency antenna (point to
point communication)
Folded dipole,Yagi-uda,Rhombic etc
VHF &UHF Helical antenna
UHF and Microwave antenna(microwave and
satellite
Antenna with parabolic reflectors, Horn
antenna

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Dipole Antenna
The Dipole Antenna
One of the most widely used antenna types is the
half-wave dipole.
The half-wave dipole, also called a doublet, is
formally known as the Hertz antenna.
A dipole antenna is two pieces of wire, rod, or
tubing that are one-quarter wavelength long at
the operating resonant frequency.
Wire dipoles are supported with glass, ceramic, or
plastic insulators at the ends and middle.
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Dipole Antenna
Figure 5-10: The dipole antenna.
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Dipole Antenna
The Dipole Antenna
The dipole has an impedance of 73 at its center,
which is the radiation resistance.
An antenna is a frequency-sensitive device.
To get the dipole to resonate at the frequency of
operation, the physical length must be shorter
than the one-half wavelength computed by =
492/f.
If a dipole is used at a frequency different from its
design frequency, the SWR rises and power is lost.

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Dipole Antenna
The Dipole Antenna: Antenna Q and Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna is determined by
the frequency of operation and the Q of the
antenna according to the relationship BW = f
r
/Q.
The higher the Q, the narrower the bandwidth.
For an antenna, low Q and wider bandwidth are
desirable so that the antenna can operate over a
wider range of frequencies with reasonable SWR.
In general, any SWR below 2:1 is considered good
in practical antenna work.
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Dipole Antenna
The Dipole Antenna: Dipole Polarization
Most half-wave dipole antennas are mounted
horizontally to the earth.
This makes the electric field horizontal to the
earth and the antenna is horizontally polarized.
Horizontal mounting is preferred at the lower
frequencies because the physical construction,
mounting, and support are easier.
This mounting makes it easier to attach the
transmission line and route it to the transmitter or
receiver.
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Dipole Antenna
The Dipole Antenna: Radiation Pattern and Directivity
The radiation pattern of any antenna is the shape of the
electromagnetic energy radiated from or received by that
antenna.
Most antennas have directional characteristics that cause
them to radiate or receive energy in a specific direction.
The measure of an antennas directivity is beam width, the
angle of the radiation pattern over which a transmitters
energy is directed or received.
Dipole Antenna: Antenna Gain
A directional antenna can radiate more power in a
given direction than a non directional antenna.


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Dipole Antenna
Figure 14-15: Three-dimensional pattern of a half-wave dipole.
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Folded Dipole
The Dipole Antenna: Folded Dipole
A popular variation of the half-wave dipole is the
folded dipole.
The folded dipole is also one-half wavelength long.
It consists of two parallel conductors connected at
the ends with one side open at the center for
connection to the transmission line.
The impedance of this antenna is 300 .
Folded dipoles usually offer greater bandwidth
than standard dipoles.
The folded dipole is an effective, low-cost antenna
that can be used for transmitting and receiving.
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Folded Dipole
Folded antenna is a single antenna but it consists of two
elements.
First element is fed directly while second one is coupled
inductively at its end.
Radiation pattern of folded dipole is same as that of
dipole antenna
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Folded Dipole
Figure 14-18: Folded dipole. (a) Basic configuration. (b) Construction with twin lead.
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Marconi or Ground-Plane Vertical Antenna
Marconi or Ground-Plane Vertical Antenna
The one-quarter wavelength vertical antenna,
also called a Marconi antenna, is widely used.

It is similar in operation to a vertically mounted
dipole antenna.

The Marconi antenna offers major advantages
because it is half the length of a dipole antenna.
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Marconi or Ground-Plane Vertical Antenna
Figure 14-20: Ground-plane antenna. (a) One-quarter wavelength vertical antenna.
(b) Using radials as a ground plane.
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Marconi or Ground-Plane Vertical Antenna
Marconi or Ground-Plane Vertical Antenna:
Ground Plane, Radials, and Counterpoise
When a good electrical connection to the earth has
been made, the earth becomes what is known as a
ground plane.
If a ground plane cannot be made to earth, an artificial
ground can be constructed of several one-quarter
wavelength wires laid horizontally on the ground or
buried in the earth.
These horizontal wires at the base of the antenna are
called radials, and the collection of radials is called a
counterpoise.
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Marconi or Ground-Plane Vertical Antenna
Marconi or Ground-Plane Vertical Antenna:
Antenna Length
For many applications, e.g., with portable or
mobile equipment, it is not possible to make the
antenna a full one-quarter wavelength long.
To overcome this problem, shorter antennas are
used, and lumped electrical components are
added to compensate for the shortening.
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Directional Antenna (point to point communication)
Directivity
Directivity refers to an antennas ability to send or
receive signals over a narrow horizontal directional
range.
The physical orientation of the antenna gives it a
highly directional response or directivity curve.
A directional antenna eliminates interference from
other signals being received from all directions other
than the desired signal.

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Directional Antenna (point to point communication)
Directivity
A highly directional antenna acts as a type of filter to
provide selectivity.
Directional antennas provide greater efficiency of
power transmission.
Directivity, because it focuses the power, causes
the antenna to exhibit gain, which is one form of
amplification.

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Directional Antenna (point to point communication)
Figure 14-25: Radiation pattern of a highly directional antenna with gain. (a) Horizontal
radiation pattern. (b) Three-dimensional radiation pattern.
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Directional Antenna (point to point communication)
Directivity
To create an antenna with directivity and gain,
two or more antenna elements are combined to
form an array.
Two basic types of antenna arrays are used to
achieve gain and directivity:
1. Parasitic arrays.
2. Driven arrays.
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Directional Antenna (point to point communication)
Parasitic Arrays
A parasitic array consists of a basic antenna
connected to a transmission line plus one or more
additional conductors that are not connected to
the transmission line.
These extra conductors are referred to as parasitic
elements and the antenna is called a driven
element.
A Yagi antenna is made up of a driven element
and one or more parasitic elements.
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Yagi Antenna
Figure 14-26: A parasitic array known as a Yagi antenna.
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A 3 element Yagi antenna

Yagi Antenna
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Driven Arrays
Driven Arrays
A driven array is an antenna that has two or more
driven elements.
Each element receives RF energy from the
transmission line.
Different arrangements of the elements produce
different degrees of directivity and gain.
The three basic types of driven arrays are the
collinear, the broadside, and the end-fire.
A fourth type is the wide-bandwidth log-periodic
antenna.
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LOOP ANTENNA
A loop antenna is a radio antenna consisting of a loop of
wire with its ends connected to a balanced transmission
line
It is a single turn coil carrying RF current through it.
The dimensions of coil are smaller than the wavelength
hence current flowing through the coil has same phase.
Small loops have a poor efficiency and are mainly used as
receiving antennas at low frequencies. Except for car
radios, almost every AM broadcast receiver sold has such
an antenna built inside of it or directly attached to it.

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TURNSTILE ANTENNA

A turnstile antenna is a set of two
dipole antennas aligned at right
angles to each other and fed 90
degrees out-of-phase.
The name reflects that the antenna
looks like a turnstile when
mounted horizontally.
When mounted horizontally the
antenna is nearly omnidirectional
on the horizontal plane.

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Reflector antenna
A reflector antenna, made in different types,
shapes and configurations depending upon
the shape of the reflector and type of feed
mechanism.
The reflector is usually a paraboloid, also
called a parabolic reflector.

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Parabolic reflectors
A parabolic reflector has a very important
property: for any point on its surface, the sum
of distances of this point from the focal point
and the directrix is constant. If the source of
radiation is placed at its focal point, the waves
travelling after reflection from different points
on the reflector surface will reach the directrix
in phase due to equal path lengths involved
with the result that the emitted beam is highly
concentrated along the axis
of the antenna. Similarly, on reception, the
waves approaching the antenna parallel to the
axis get focused on the feed antenna,
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Feed mechanism
The feed mechanisms include the feed
antenna placed at the focal point of the
paraboloid or the feed antenna located off the
focal point. Another common feed mechanism
is the cassegrain feed.
The feed antenna is usually a dipole or a horn
antenna.

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Feed mechanism
Commonly employed reflector antenna
configurations
Focal point fed parabolic reflector [(a)]
Offset fed sectioned parabolic reflector [(b)]
Cassegrain fed reflector [(c)]
Array fed cylindrical reflector [(d)]
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Feed mechanism
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Parabolic Dish
(With a Feedhorn)
D = 11, Gain = 29 dB, F/B = 33 dB
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Radio-Wave Propagation
Once a radio signal has been radiated by an
antenna, it travels or propagates through
space and ultimately reaches the receiving
antenna.
The energy level of the signal decreases
rapidly with distance from the transmitting
antenna.
The electromagnetic wave is affected by
objects that it encounters along the way such
as trees, buildings, and other large structures.
The path that an electromagnetic signal takes
to a receiving antenna depends upon many
factors, including the frequency of the signal,
atmospheric conditions, and time of day.
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14-3: Radio-Wave Propagation
Optical Characteristics of Radio Waves
Radio waves act much like light waves.

Light waves can be reflected, refracted, diffracted,
and focused by other objects.

The focusing of waves by antennas to make them
more concentrated in a desired direction is
comparable to a lens focusing light waves into a
narrower beam.
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14-3: Radio-Wave Propagation
Radio-Wave Propagation Through Space
The three basic paths that a radio signal can take
through space are:
Ground wave
Sky wave
Space wave
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14-3: Radio-Wave Propagation
Radio-Wave Propagation Through Space:
Ground Waves
Ground or surface waves leave an antenna and
remain close to the earth.
Ground waves actually follow the curvature of the
earth and can travel at distances beyond the
horizon.
Ground waves must have vertical polarization to
be propagated from an antenna.
Ground-wave propagation is strongest at the low-
and medium-frequency ranges.
AM broadcast signals are propagated primarily by
ground waves during the day and by sky waves at
night.
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14-3: Radio-Wave Propagation
Figure 14-40: Ground or surface wave radiation from an antenna.
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14-3: Radio-Wave Propagation
Radio-Wave Propagation Through Space: Sky
Waves
Sky-wave signals are radiated by the antenna into
the upper atmosphere, where they are bent back
to earth.
When a radio signal goes into the ionosphere, the
different levels of ionization cause the radio waves
to be gradually bent.
The smaller the angle with respect to the earth,
the more likely it is that the waves will be
refracted and sent back to earth.
The higher the frequency, the smaller the
radiation angle required for refraction to occur.
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14-3: Radio-Wave Propagation
Figure 14-41: Sky wave propagation.
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14-3: Radio-Wave Propagation
Radio-Wave Propagation Through Space: Space
Waves
A direct wave, or space wave, travels in a straight line
directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving
antenna.
Direct-wave radio signaling is often referred to as line-
of-sight communication.
Direct or space waves are not refracted, nor do they
follow the curvature of the earth.
Line-of-sight communication is characteristic of most
radio signals with a frequency above 30 MHz,
particularly VHF, UHF, and microwave signals.
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14-3: Radio-Wave Propagation
Figure 14-42: Line-of-sight communication by direct or space waves.
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Ionosphere
The Ionosphere
The ionosphere is the region of the upper atmosphere where
the Suns ultraviolet radiation can ionize oxygen molecules to
create a positive ion and a free electron.
The ionosphere protects us from excessive ultraviolet
radiation.
Main layers of the ionosphere.
D layer is existing at an average height of 70 km and an
average thickness of 10Km.The ions in this layer recombine at
night.


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Ionosphere
E layer is existing at an average height of 100 km . The ions
in this layer also recombine at night, but last longer after
sunset.
The F layer splits into the F1 and F2 layers during the day.
The layers combine into a single F layer at night.
F1 layer is existing at an average height of 180 km in day
time and combines with F2 layer in night. Its day time
thickness is about 20 Km.
F2 is most important reflecting medium for high frequency.
It thickness is about 200km.and height ranges from 250 to
400km in day time. When the Sun is directly overhead the
F2 layer will be at its highest altitude.

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Ionosphere
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virtual height
The virtual height is
the height from
which the radio
wave appears to be
reflecting.
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Critical angle and Critical Frequency
The critical angle is the
angle at which a radio wave
must hit the ionosphere to
reflect back to the Earth.
The critical frequency is the
highest frequency that a
radio wave transmitted
straight up will return to the
Earth.

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MUF & LUF
Maximum usable frequency (MUF) is the highest frequency at
which propagation exists between two points. Frequencies
higher than the MUF pass through the ionsphere into space.
Lowest usable frequency (LUF) is the lowest frequency at
which propagation exists between two points. Frequencies
lower than the LUF are absorbed in the ionosphere.
The MUF and LUF are affected by:
Time of day
Season
Amount of solar radiation
Ionospheric stability

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Skip Distance
The Skip distance is
the shortest distance
from transmitter
,measured along the
surface of the earth,
at which sky wave of
fixed frequency will be
retuned to earth.

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Multi Hoop
The higher the region in the ionosphere where
the hop occurs, the greater the distance the
wave can travel.
F2 skip can travel more than E skip.

Sky-wave propagation can include multiple
hops between the Earth and the ionosphere.
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Radio-Wave Propagation
Common Propagation Problems: Fading
Fading is the variation in signal amplitude at the
receiver caused by the characteristics of the
signal path and changes in it.
Fading typically makes the received signal smaller.
Fading is caused by four factors:
1. Variation in distance between transmitter and receiver.
2. Changes in the environmental characteristics of the
signal path.
3. The presence of multiple signal paths.
4. Relative motion between the transmitter and receiver.
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14-3: Radio-Wave Propagation
Common Propagation Problems: Diversity
System
A diversity system uses multiple transmitters,
receivers, or antennas to mitigate the problems
caused by multipath signals.
With frequency diversity, two separate sets of
transmitters and receivers operating on different
frequencies are used to transmit the same
information simultaneously.
Space or spatial diversity uses two receive
antennas spaced as far apart as possible to receive
the signals.