E Nav Topics

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Hyperbolic Navigation Systems

Hyperbolic Lines
Principle
Loran stations transmit radio signals of very short duration called pulses. However the frequency
of the signals are quite low about 90 kHz to 110 kHz
Duration of pulse varies and is about 200 s.
If we assume that a pulse duration lasts for 200 s, then:
1 second = 1000000 s
If the pulse recurring frequency (PRF) is 25pps then-
25 pulses are sent in 1000000 s
Therefore the interval between each pulse is 1000000/25 = 40000 s
Or approximately the transmitter transmits a pulse of 200 s and rests for 40000 s.
However the power transmitted during these short bursts is extremely high.
Again we know that radio waves travel at the speed of light, that is at 300000 km per second.
Or in 1000000 s the radio waves travel 300000000 metres.
Or in 1 s the radio waves travel 300000000/1000000 = 300 metres.
Applying the above we get 1 NM (1852 metres) is traversed in 6.173 s
Now let us assume that there are two transmitters (A and B) separated by a distance of 324 NM.
Radio waves will take about 2000 s (324 x 6.173) to traverse from A to B.
Now let both the transmitters transmit at the same time. Also let a ship be placed at a position
where both the signals are received at the same time. Now let the ship move along a course
adjusting her course so that the two signals are always received at the same time (no time
difference). It is seen that the course line is not a straight line but is a hyperbola.
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Now it is seen that if there is a time difference in the arrival of the signals from the two
transmitters, then too the track of equal time difference is a hyperbola. And a ship navigating
with a receiver where the time difference can be recorded need only to keep the time difference
constant to traverse the hyperbola.

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However with multiple hyperbolas drawn for the same two transmitters we would have two
identical hyperbolas on either side of the hyperbola of no time difference, as seen in the figure.
The hyperbola of no time difference is known as the CENTRE LINE. And the line extending
between the two transmitters is known as the base line extension.
Thus in order to resolve the problem as to on which hyperbola the ship is traversing, we require
to create a time difference between the transmission of the two stations.

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So to overcome the above ambiguity, a transmitter (MASTER) transmits first and after the other
station (SLAVE) receives this signal, it transmits its signal. So the ship will first receive the
MASTER signal and then after a time delay will receive the signal from the SLAVE.
Under this system the time difference between the two signals will be maximum on the
hyperbola near the MASTER station and minimum on the hyperbola near the SLAVE station.
Since the MASTER signal has to go from the MASTER station to the SLAVE station and
activate it, thus a ship near the MASTER station will have to wait after getting a signal from the
MASTER, for the signal from MASTER station to go and activate the SLAVE station and then
get the SLAVE station signal.

There remains another problem. What happens if at a point the signal from the MASTER arrives
at a time that the signal from the SLAVE also arrives (after being triggered by the
MASTER), and there is no time difference.

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In the above figure, the time difference purposely created between the transmission of the
MASTER station and the SLAVE station is indicated as 1000 s on the base line extension. This
time difference is known as the CODING DELAY.
NO coding delay a ship close to the Slave station Y, receives signal from M and Y at the same
time.
Canadian East Coast GRI 5930
Station Master:
Latitude: 46 48.455 North
Longitude: 067 55.62 West
Station Yankee:
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A SHIP at location:
Distance GC: M to S: 618.97 NM (The signal travels from M towards S)
M to Y: 605.139 NM (The signal travels from M towards Y and triggers Y)
Y to S: 13.85 NM (Signal from Y travels towards S)
618.989 NM

Loran C System
INTRODUCTION
The term Loran is an acronym for LOng RAnge Navigation (LORAN).
Loran-C provides better than 0.25 nautical mile (460 meters), absolute accuracy for suitably
equipped users within the published areas.
Users can return to previously determined positions with an accuracy of 18 to 90 meters using
Loran-C in the time difference repeatable mode.
STATIONS
Loran-C transmitters are organized into chains of 3, 4 or 5 stations. Within a chain, one station is
designated Master (M) while the other Secondary stations identified by the letters W, X, Y
and Z. Different secondary designations are used depending on the number of station in a chain.
This is summarized in the table below.
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CONFIGURATION DESIGNATORS AN EXAMPLE
Master with 5 secondaries M V, W, X, Y, Z South Central U.S. 9610
Master with 4 secondaries M W, X, Y, Z Southeast U.S. 7980
Master with 3 secondaries M X, Y, Z Canadian West Coast 5990
Master with 2 secondaries M X, Y East China 8390

Power levels can range from as low as 11 KW to as high as 1.2 MW.
In Russia, a navigation system known as CHAYKA is compatible with Loran-C hence it forms
part of the worldwide chain.
The Loran-C navigation signal is a structured sequence of short radio frequency pulses on a
carrier wave centered at 100 kHz. All secondary stations send pulses in bursts of eight, whereas
the Master signal, for identification purposes, has an additional ninth pulse burst.
The sequence of signal transmissions consists of a pulse group from the Master (M) station
followed at exact time intervals by pulse groups from the secondary stations.
The time interval between the reoccurrence of the Master pulse is called the Group

Repetition Interval (GRI).
Each Loran-C chain has a unique GRI.
Loran-C pulse structure and sequencing.
Since all Loran-C transmitters operate on the same frequency, the GRI is the key by which a
receiver can identify and isolate signal groups from a specific chain.
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In naming the chains, the GRI is included. As an example the Great Lakes chain has a GRI of
8970.
This means the time interval is 89700 microseconds.
The rightmost zero is always implied and the GRI is always in multiples of 10 microseconds.
In old Loran-C receivers, the operator had to actually set this number to receive the chain.
GRIs are chosen on the basis of:
Baseline lengths between master and secondaries. If the distance between the master and first
secondary is say 1000 kms, the radio signal will take 33,000 microseconds to get to the slave so
the GRI cannot possibly be less than that.
Number of slaves that have to be accommodated - they all have to have delays so that there is no
possibility of them crossing over anywhere in coverage area.
Geography.
Other nearby chains with consideration given to interference.
Skywave cross-rate interference.

Duty cycle of the transmitters - a faster GRI means the average power of the transmitted signal is
higher so the final stage in the transmitter requires more cooling. With average baseline lengths
and three slaves, the minimum GRI cannot be much less than 50,000 microseconds.
Each Loran-C pulse has an approximate duration of 200 microseconds (s).
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The interval between pulses within a pulse group is 1000 s, except for the last two pulses at the
Master, which have a 2000 s interval.
1000 s 1000 s 1000 s 1000 s 1000 s 1000 s
1000 s 2000 s

This above illustrates the points on the Loran-C pulse envelope that define the start time, the
time of maximum envelope power and the stop time of the pulse.
Two other important characteristics are associated with Loran-C signals, namely emission and
coding delay.
If the master station is taken as a reference, the emission delay refers to how long it takes before
the secondary transmits after the Master has done so.
The coding delay is a very small correction that removes the local (near-field) discrepancy
between the envelope and carrier.
Both parameters are measured in microseconds and are uniquely associated with each secondary
station.
BASELINES AND COVERAGE
An imaginary line drawn between the Master and each secondary station is called the baseline.
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The continuation of the baseline in either direction is called a baseline extension.
Typical baselines are from 1200 to 1900 km (say 600 to 1000 nautical miles).
Chain coverage is determined by:
The power transmitted from each transmitter in the chain,
The distance between them and
How the different transmitters are oriented in relation to each other (the geometry of the chain).
SKY WAVE REJECTION
A frequency of 100 kHz was chosen for the Loran-C carrier wave to take advantage of
propagation of the stable ground wave to long distances.
However, the presence of delayed sky waves, reflected from the ionosphere, cause distortions of
the pulse shape and change the carrier phase within the pulses of the received signal.
Not only those, the skywaves take longer to arrive at the receiver than the ground wave, so their
presence complicates the computation.
To avoid sky wave contamination, the Loran-C receiver selects a zero crossing of a specified
carrier cycle at the front end of the pulses transmitted by master and secondary stations.
Making the cycle selection early in the ground wave pulse - usually the third cycle is employed -
ensures that the time interval measurement is made using the uncontaminated part of the pulse.
But how is the third peak selected when the start time of the pulse is not known?
To solve the problem, the receiver compares the envelope (the rough shape) of the received pulse
with a stored envelope.
This process is called the rough measurement. When the third peak is finally located, the phase
of the signal can be determined. The phase of the signal can be zero or pi radians.
Precise control over the pulse shape at the transmitter also ensures that the selected zero crossing
can be identified reliably by the receiver.
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Zero Crossing: This diagram illustrates the third cycle in the Loran pulse.
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PHASE CODING
To reduce the effects of interference and noise on time difference measurements, and to assist in
distinguishing between master and secondary stations, the carrier phase of selected transmitted
pulses is reversed in a predetermined pattern.

The pattern is shown below, where a minus sign indicates an inverted pulse (180 phase shift),
and a plus sign means no phase shift. This pattern is repeated every two GRIs.
Simply stated, phase coding determines whether the first peak in the pulse is upwards or
downwards.
Phase Coding
TIME DIFFERENCE MEASUREMENTS
The basic measurements made by Loran-C receivers are to determine the difference in the time-
of-arrival (Time Difference, TD) between the master signal and the signals from each of the
secondary stations of a chain. Each TD value is measured to a precision of about 0.1
microseconds (100 nanoseconds) or better. As a rule of thumb, 100 nanoseconds correspond to
about 30 metres. The principle of time difference measurements in hyperbolic mode is as
illustrated.
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Time Difference Measurements
AUTOMATIC OPERATION
Todays state-of-the-art, solid-state Loran-C transmitters are adapted for automatic operation.
The functions are monitored at the Control Centre, which has the capability of initiating
corrective action using data communications.
Loran-C Receiver Latitude/Longitude Corrections
Todays Loran-C receivers are equipped with microprocessors which are designed to internally
compute the latitude and longitude co-ordinates of the receiver, based on the Time Difference
(TD) readings, and directly display these values.
This may reduce the need to possess Loran-C charts, though it is still required.

WHY?
The latitude/longitude computation may be based upon a pure sea water path.
This leads to errors if the Loran-C signals from the various stations involve appreciable overland
paths since the speed of the signal will decrease by varying amounts, depending on the nature of
the earths surface over which it is passing.
Loran-C operates by measuring the difference in arrival times of the signals from the different
stations in the Loran-C chain, and thus any unforeseen variation in the speed of a signal will
result in an error in the latitude/longitude reading.
Note that when the receiver is being used in the time difference mode (time difference readings
being used to manually plot lines of position on a Loran-C chart), these errors are minimal and
the system should be accurate to within nautical mile.
This is because the Loran-C lattice on a nautical chart has already been adjusted to allow for the
signal variation as it travels over land.
It is therefore necessary that before using the latitude/longitude feature of the receiver, to check
the manufacturers operating manual to determine if corrections are necessary and how they may
be applied to compensate for overland paths in order to obtain a greater fix accuracy.
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The correction can be applied in either of two forms:
insertion of a correction when the vessel is at a known location, or
the insertion of a correction factor that is determined from a table or chartlet.
The latter is called an Additional Secondary Phase Factor (ASF) correction, and can be used to
ascertain the numeric value to apply. These corrections will normally be valid only within 50 to
100 miles of the location at which the correction was inserted because of the changing effects of
landmass on the Loran signals in the different areas.
PRECISION CLOCKS
To achieve high positioning accuracy within the service area, Loran-C transmitter stations are
equipped with a bank of atomic clocks, which provide the timing for the transmitted Loran-C
signal.
Precise navigation with Loran-C demands that the error in the timing system must not exceed a
few tens of nanoseconds. For Northwest European Loran-C System (NELS), it is specified that a
stations clock shall not deviate by more than 30 nanoseconds from the clocks of the
neighbouring stations. Achieving this precision in timing it is necessary to continuously measure
the time deviation between the clocks in the system.
ADDITIONAL SECONDARY FACTOR (ASF)
A Loran-C receiver computes distances from Loran-C transmitting stations using the time of
arrival measurements and the propagation velocity of the radio ground wave to determine
position.
Small variations in the velocity of propagation between that over seawater and over different
landmasses are known as the Additional Secondary Factor, or ASF.
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Corrections may be applied to compensate for this variation. Such corrections may improve the
absolute accuracy of the Loran-C service in positions where the received Loran-C signal passes
over anything but seawater on its way from transmitter to receiver. The values of ASF depend
mainly on the conductivity of the earths surface along the signal paths. Seawater has high
conductivity, and the ASFs of seawater are, by definition, zero. Dry soil, mountains or ice
generally have low conductivity and radio signals travel over them more slowly, giving rise to
substantial ASF delays and hence degradation of absolute accuracy.
Fortunately, ASFs vary little with time, and it is possible to calibrate the Loran-C service by
measuring ASF values throughout the coverage area.
SERVICE INTEGRITY
Loran-C stations are constantly monitored to detect signal abnormalities, which would render the
system unusable for navigation.
Blink is the prime means by which the user is notified that the transmitted Loran-C signal does
not comply with the system specifications. Blink also indicates that the Control Centre cannot
ensure that the signal complies with these specifications, for instance, as a result of
discontinuation of data communications linking the Control Centre to the stations. Blink is a
distinctive change in the group of eight Loran-C pulses that can be recognized automatically by a
receiver so the user is notified instantly that the Loran-C chain blinking should not be used for
navigation.
Blink starts at a maximum of 60 seconds after detection of an abnormality.
Automatic blink initiated within 10 seconds of a timing abnormality may be added where Loran-
C is extensively used for aviation purposes.
ACCURACY
The Loran-C service will support an absolute accuracy varying from 185 meters to 463 meters
(0.1 to 0.25 nautical miles), depending on where the observer is within the coverage area.
Absolute accuracy defines a users true geographic position (latitude and longitude). Repeatable
accuracy is a measure of an observers ability - by using a navigation system such as Loran-C -
to return to a position visited previously using the same navigation system. Loran-C repeatable
accuracy is sometimes as good as 18 meters and is usually better than 100 meters within the
coverage area.
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FUTURE OF LORAN-C
Outside the US, the Coast Guard left individual countries to decide whether to continue their
own operations.
In 1997, an independent study was conducted in the U.S. to evaluate the impact of discontinuing
Loran-C. Finally, on June 29, 1998, a decision was made by FAA, USCG and OST to continue
the operation of Loran-C beyond its currently planned 12/31/2000-termination date.
At the ICAO CNS/ATM implementation conference held in Rio de Janeiro, the FAA dropped a
bombshell by announcing, contrary to all earlier assurances, that the Global Positioning System
(GPS) would not be approved for sole use navigation, and would need a backup.
The reason given was that the possibilities of jamming, solar events, etc., were now better
understood. Excellent though GPS may be, its problem is that it is so low powered that the signal
can easily be blanked out or disrupted - as demonstrated at an 1997 Moscow air show where
a jammer destroyed the signal over a radius of 200 km.
The notion of GPS as sole means of navigation is dead. Suitable backup systems cited are triple
inertial, VOR/DME and LORAN-C.
As of September 1998, the American DoT confirmed that the existing LORAN-C chains will be
maintained and upgraded, at least to 2008, in the transition period to satellite based navigation.
Lorans wavelength and signal strength enable it to penetrate into areas where GPS has difficulty
because of line-of-sight blockage as in urban or forested situations. Loran can even penetrate
some buildings.
The most recent draft European Radio Navigation Plan (ERNP) and European Commission
report (31/10/96) includes Loran-C as part of the desired system mix in marine, land transport
and aviation to at least the year 2020.

Satellite Navigation Systems
The Global Positioning System (GPS)
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The
Global Positioning System (GPS) is a worldwide radio-navigation system formed from a
constellation of 24 satellites and their ground stations. The satellites are all in polar orbits unlike
the geo-stationary INMARSAT satellites.

Thus the GPS satellites do not have a fixed position with reference to a position on earth. They
are all moving in their orbits.
The altitude is generally about 11000 km above the earth. GPS uses these man-made stars as
reference points to calculate positions accurate to a matter of meters.
The NAVigation Satellite Timing and Ranging (NAVSTAR) GPS is an all weather, radio based,
satellite navigation system that enables users to accurately determine 3-dimensional position,
velocity, and time worldwide.
The overall system consists of three major segments: the space segment, the ground control
segment, and the user segment.
The space segment is a constellation of satellites operating in 12-hour orbits at an altitude of
20,183 km (10,898 NM).
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The constellation is composed of 24 satellites in six orbital planes, each plane equally spaced
about the equator and inclined at 55 degrees.
The ground control segment consists of a master control centre and a number of widely separated
monitoring stations.
The ground control network tracks the satellites, precisely determines their orbits, and
periodically uploads almanac ephemeris, and other system data to all satellites for retransmission
to the user segment.
The user segment is the collection of all GPS user receivers and their support equipment.
More simply, the GPS Receivers position is determined by the geometric intersection of several
simultaneously observed ranges (satellite to receiver distances) from satellites with known co-
ordinates in space.
The receiver measures the transmission time required for a satellite signal to reach the receiver.
Transit time is determined using code correlation techniques
The actual measurement is a unique time shift for which the code sequence transmitted by the
satellite correlates with an identical code generated in the tracking receiver.
The receiver code is shifted until maximum correlation between the two codes is achieved.
This time shift multiplied by the speed of light is the receivers measure of the range to the
satellite.
This measurement includes various propagation delays, as well as satellite and receiver clock
errors.
Since the measurement is not a true geometric range, it is known as a pseudo-range.
The receiver processes these pseudo-range measurements along with the received ephemeris data
(satellite orbit data) to determine the users three-dimensional position.
A minimum of four pseudo-range observations is required to mathematically solve for four
unknown receiver parameters (i.e., latitude, longitude, altitude, and clock offset).
If one of these parameters is known (for example, altitude fixed) then only three satellite pseudo-
range observations are required and thus only three satellites need to be tracked.
The level of accuracy is up to 100 metres. However it depends whether the chatty being used to
plot the position is using WG84 datum or not. If not then there may be corrections to be applied
prior such GPS derived positions are plotted on the charts.
Since the datum used is of so great a factor, it always prudent to check on the chart whether the
chart is to WGS84 datum or other. The correction is usually printed on the chart, but if it is not
then due caution is to be used since the GPS position in extreme cases can be found to be on
land.

GPS Systems
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A GPS receiver measures distance from the satellite to a receiver using the travel time of radio
signals.
So we require:
Precise and synchronised clocks to measure the time difference
The whereabouts of the satellites
And any signal deterioration or bending due to atmospheric causes.
Imagine a satellite transmitting in space.
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Then there will occur at different distances from the satellite a measured time difference in the
arrival time of the signal from the satellite.
Therefore a receiver on the surface of the earth would by measuring the time difference between
the departure of the signal from the satellite and the arrival at the receiver, be able to make out
the distance from the satellite.

But how is the receiver going to be informed that the signal has left the satellite. So the receiver
has to be informed of the time. This requires the receiver to have a precision atomic clock.
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The triangulation is done in the same manner as are all triangulations done. Thus if we assume
that the satellite transmits in all directions including in space, then the signals from three such
satellites will intersect at a point.
But for this to happen the clocks on the satellites as well as on the receiver have to be atomic
clocks, with absolutely NIL error of synchronisation.

But if the clocks are not absolutely synchronised as is the case, since equipping all the receivers
with atomic clocks would make GPS beyond the means of everyone.
The triangulation is done in the above way, taking into fact that the clocks are
not synchronised and that the triangulation is IMPERFECT.
In this case then the signals from 2 satellites would intersect as above. And a receiver
anywhere in space would be in the shaded area where the two signals overlap.
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With this IMPERFECT clock system then, if the third satellite signal is made to overlap then
there will exist only two points in space where the receiver is placed.

Out of these two positions are separated by hundreds if not in thousands of miles, additionally
one may be in space while the other will be on the earths surface. This since the signals from all
three are received on the surface of the earth.
Of course a fourth satellite signal would remove the discrepancy but since the triangulation is
solved practically so the fourth signal is not needed for triangulation.
We have now seen that a position is calculated from distance measurements to at least three
satellites.
Now the problem arises of measuring the distance to a satellite in space
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This is done by timing how long it takes for a signal sent from the satellite to arrive at our
receiver.
The Mathematics
In a sense, the whole thing boils down to a velocity times travel time problem.
This simple equation is all that is used:
Velocity x Time = Distance
In the case of GPS were measuring a radio signal so the velocity is going to be the speed of
light 300,000,000 metres per second.
Synchronisation of Clocks:
The time measurements are extremely short.
(of course longer than Radar)
If a satellite were right overhead the travel time would be something like 0.06 seconds.
The difference in synchronisation of the receiver time minus the satellite time is equal to the
travel time.
Thus we require really precise clocks.
Even with precise clocks, what we require is a reference start time.
In a RADAR we get the reference from the time the signal pulse leaves the magnetron and the
start of the sawtooth current in the CRT. There the time is synchronised. But for satellite signals,
the Radio signals have reached a limit in speed.
So the problem in GPS is how to have a reference instant.
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In the GPS system, if we have a reference instant then the receiver just has to measure the delay
in the signal reaching the receiver from the satellite and it could then compute the distance over
which the signal travelled.
The GPS satellites transmit something called a PRC. This PRC is also generated within the
receiver at the same time.
The PRC from the receiver is matched with that received from the satellite and thus the receiver
can easily compute the time delay, and thus the distance.

Rather than sending just any radio signal, the satellites send the signal as a code - Pseudo
Random Code.
Or to be exact a False Random Code
Each satellite has a unique PRC
Why Random?
The Pseudo Random Code (PRC, shown above) is a fundamental part of GPS. Physically its just
a very complicated digital code, or in other words, a complicated sequence of on and off
pulses as shown here:
The signal is so complicated that it almost looks like random electrical noise. Hence the name
Pseudo-Random.
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PRC
There are several good reasons for that complexity: First, the complex pattern helps make sure
that the receiver doesnt accidentally sync up to some other signal. The patterns are so complex
that its highly unlikely that a stray signal will have exactly the same shape.
Since each satellite has its own unique Pseudo-Random Code this complexity also guarantees
that the receiver wont accidentally pick up another satellites signal.
So all the satellites can use the same frequency without jamming each other.
And it makes it more difficult for a hacker to jam the system. In fact the Pseudo Random Code
gives the US a way to control access to the system.
But theres another reason for the complexity of the Pseudo Random Code, a reason thats
crucial to making GPS economical.
The codes make it possible to use information theory to amplify the GPS signal. And thats
why GPS receivers dont need big satellite dishes to receive the GPS signals.
Each satellite transmits pseudo random noise spread spectrum signals on two different
frequencies,
L1 at 1575.42 MHz and
L2 at 1227.6 MHz.
L1 carries the coarse/acquisition code (CA-code) and a precision code (P-code).
L2 usually only carries P-code, but could carry CA-code as well.
The CA-code is a short sequence that repeats itself every millisecond, is different for every
satellite, and is known and open to anyone who wishes to receive and decode it.
The P-code, on the other hand, repeats every 267 days, and each satellite transmits a different
seven-day segment before being reset.
The P-code requires a cryptological key to decode, which is limited to US Department of
Defense (DoD) and other approved users.
This pseudo random noise can then be modulated, allowing multiple transmitters to use the
same frequency.

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Synchronising the receivers clock and the satellite clock.
If the clocks are not ticking in unison then there is no way the PRC can be compared for shift.
Since the entire GPS is based on time difference, the clocks have to be very good, because if the
timing is off by just a thousandth of a second, at the speed of light, that translates into almost 200
miles of error!
On the satellite side, timing is almost perfect because they have precise atomic clocks on board.
And the receivers here on the ground?
Remember that both the satellite and the receiver need to be able to precisely synchronize their
pseudo-random codes to make the system work.
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If the receivers are equipped with atomic clocks (which cost upwards of $50K to $100K) GPS
couldnt be affordable.

However the GPS as we know of do not have atomic clocks, but the receivers still are able to
measure time with an atomic clock precision.
The secret to perfect timing is to make an extra satellite measurement.
If three perfect measurements can locate a point in 3-dimensional space, then
four imperfect measurements can do the same thing.

Using the 4
th
. Satellite signal to make a timing correction.
The 4
th
satellite gets rid of the imperfect intersection
Extra Measurement Cures Timing Offset
If the receivers clocks were perfect, then all the satellite ranges would intersect at a single point
-position of the receiver.
But with imperfect clocks, a fourth measurement, done as a cross-check, will NOT intersect with
the first three.
So the receivers computer finds that a discrepancy in time measurements.
So the receivers clock is not perfectly synced with universal time.
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Since any offset from universal time will affect all time measurements, the receiver looks for a
single correction factor that it can subtract from all its timing measurements that would cause
them all to intersect at a single point.
That correction brings the receivers clock back into sync with universal time, and - youve got
atomic accuracy time right on board.
Once the receiver has that correction it applies to all the rest of its measurements and gets precise
positioning.
Thus all GPS receivers need to have at least four channels to make the four measurements
simultaneously.
So with the PRC as a timing sync pulse, and this 4
th
extra measurement, the receiver is perfectly
synced to universal time, and thus can measure the distance to a satellite in space.
However for the triangulation to work, the receiver needs also to know where in space the
satellite is located.
The receivers start with zero knowledgethey dont know where on the planet they are, or what
time it is.
Because of this, a good signal from three satellites is required to determine:
current time,
latitude, and longitude, and
a fourth to also determine altitude.
Any additional signals increase accuracy.
Most modern GPS receivers are capable of receiving on 12 separate channels.
P-code enabled receivers are able to benefit from having two different frequencies to lock onto.
This is used to measure the effect the ionosphere is having on the signals and helps improve
accuracy even further.
Since the CA-code is only carried on one frequency, such measurements are not possible, so an
estimate provided by the satellite is used.
Triangulation based on the CA-code is known as the Standard Positioning Service (SPS), with
the P-code-based system being called the Precise Positioning Service (PPS).
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Until now we have assumed that the position of the satellites is known, so we have used them as
reference points in space.
But do we know exactly where they are? After all theyre floating around 11,000 miles up in
space.
On the ground all GPS receivers have an almanac programmed into their computers that tells
them where in the sky each satellite is, moment by moment.
The GPS satellites are constantly monitored by the US.

They use very precise radar to check each satellites exact altitude, position and speed.
The errors are called ephemeris errors because they affect the satellites orbit or ephemeris.
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These errors are caused by gravitational pulls from the moon and sun and by the pressure of solar
radiation on the satellites.
The errors are usually very slight but they must be taken into account.

Once the new position of the satellite is determined it is sent to the satellite which includes its
new position as an information packet with its timing signal.
So the position of the satellite is continuously updated at the receiver also.
Thus the PRC also contains a navigation message with ephemeris information as well.

As a GPS signal passes through the charged particles of the ionosphere and then through the
water vapour in the troposphere it gets slowed down a bit, and this creates the same kind of error
as bad clocks.
There are a couple of ways to minimize this kind of error. For one thing we can predict what a
typical delay might be on a typical day.
This is called modeling and it helps but, of course, atmospheric conditions are rarely exactly
typical.
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Another
way to get to these atmosphere-induced errors is to compare the relative speeds of two different
signals.

This dual frequency measurement is very sophisticated and is only possible with advanced
receivers.
The GPS signal may bounce off various local obstructions before it gets to the receiver.
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This is called multipath error and is similar to the ghosting you might see on a TV.
Problems at the satellite
The satellites also do have to account for some tiny errors in the system.
The atomic clocks they use are very, very precise but theyre not perfect. Minute discrepancies
can occur, and these translate into travel time measurement errors.
And even though the satellites positions are constantly monitored, they cant be watched every
second. So slight position or ephemeris errors can sneak in between monitoring times.

Geometric Dilution of Precision or GDOP.
This depends on the number and the geometry of the satellites used.
If four satellites are clustered near each other, then one meter of error in measuring distance may
result in tens or hundreds of meters of error in position.
But if many satellites are scattered around the sky, then the position error may be less than 1.5
meters for every meter of error in measuring distances.
The effect of the geometry of the satellites on the position error is called Geometric
Dilution Of Precision (GDOP), which can roughly be interpreted as the ratio of the position error
to the range error.
Imagine the tetrahedron that is formed by lines connecting the receiver to each satellite used.
The larger the volume of this tetrahedron, the smaller (better) the GDOP.
In most cases, the larger the number of satellites the smaller the GDOP.
Intentional Errors
The policy of Selective Availability or SA and the idea behind it was to make sure that no
hostile force or terrorist group can use GPS to make accurate weapons.

Basically the DoD introduced some noise into the satellites clock data which, in turn, added
noise (or inaccuracy) into position calculations.
The DoD may have also been sending slightly erroneous orbital data to the satellites, which they
transmitted back to receivers on the ground as part of a status message.

33

US military receivers used a decryption key to remove the SA errors and so theyre much more
accurate.
Turning Off Selective Availability

On May 1, 2000 the White House announced a decision to discontinue the intentional
degradation of the GPS signals to the public beginning at midnight.
Civilian users of GPS are now able to pinpoint locations up to ten times more accurately.

Sources of Errors for a signal from the satellite:
Satellite clocks
Ephemeral
Atmospheric
Multipath
Receiver clocks
The GPS receivers use timing signals from at least four satellites to establish a position.
Each of those timing signals has some error or delay depending on the climatic conditions
experienced before reaching the receiver.
Since each of the timing signals that go into a position calculation has some error, that
calculation is going to be a compounding of those errors.
DIFFERENTIAL GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (DGPS)
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The satellites are so far out in space that the little distances we travel here on earth are
insignificant.

So if two receivers are fairly close to each other, say within a few hundred kilometers, the signals
that reach both of them will have travelled through virtually the same slice of atmosphere, and so
will have virtually the same errors
One receiver measures the timing errors and then provides correction information to the other
receivers that are roving around.
That way virtually all errors are eliminated from the system, even if the Selective Availability
error is brought in, it would be of no use.
35

The idea is simple. Put the reference receiver on a point thats been very accurately
surveyed and keep it there.
This reference station receives the same GPS signals as the roving receiver but instead of
working like a normal GPS receiver it attacks the
equations backwards.

Instead of using timing signals to calculate its position, it uses its known position to calculate
timing. It figures out what the travel time of the GPS signals should be, and compares it with
what they actually are. The difference is an error correction factor. The receiver then transmits
this error information to the roving receiver so it can use it to correct its measurements.

36

Since the reference receiver has no way of knowing which of the many available satellites a
roving receiver might be using to calculate its position, the reference receiver quickly runs
through all the visible satellites and computes each of their errors.

Then it encodes this information into a standard format and transmits it to the ship receivers.
The ship receivers get the complete list of errors and apply the corrections for the particular
satellites theyre using.

The Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore has set up facilities to broadcast differential GPS
signal with effect from 9 Oct.1997.
The aim of providing the DGPS broadcast service is to further enhance navigational safety.
The service is free of charge
The DGPS service is provided via a marine radio beacon operating in the MF band at 298kHz at
a transmission speed of 100 bps.
The system provides reliable all weather and round the clock DGPS data with 99% availability
The DGPS reference station of a channel dual frequency (L1 & L2) GPS receiver, a MF radio
beacon transmitter, an integrity monitoring station, remote control facilities and back up facilities
37

The DGPS Reference Station is at a known fixed position and equipped with sophisticated GPS
receivers.
The Reference Station would compare the positions received from its DGPS receiver with that of
the known position and then generate DGPS data.
The DGPS data is digitally modulated, using Minimum Shift Keying (MSK), and output via a
MF radio beacon transmitter.
The integrity monitoring station would verify the DGPS signals accuracy and ensure that the
system provides timely warnings to the users if and when the system data should not be used.
The DGPS data propagates in the ground wave mode and the system is designed with a range of
200 km.
The positioning accuracy achievable ranges from 5 m to sub-meter accuracy, depending on the
type of receiver used.
The DGPS signal could also be received inland, offering the same benefits to GPS users on land
and in the air.
Technical Details of the
Differential GPS Reference Station
Station ID : 65
Frequency :298 kHz
Bit Rate :100 bps
Modulation :Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
Data Format :RTCM SC- 1 04 Version 2.0
Range :200 km
Messages :RTCM Types 9-3, 16, 3, 5 and 7
Facilities :Integrity Monitoring, Remote Control and Back-Up facilities.
The navigation data message enables a receiver to calculate the position of each satellite at the
time of transmission of the signal.
From this information, the user position co-ordinates (Lat/Long) and the user clock bias (error)
can be calculated using simultaneous equations. Four satellites are normally required to be
simultaneously in view of the receiver for dual-dimensional (3-D) positioning purposes. The
following paragraphs give a brief description of the GPS satellite signals and GPS RCVR
operation.
GPS navigation Message
The data includes information required to determine the following:
Satellite time of transmission
Satellite position
Satellite health
38

Satellite clock correction
Propagation delay effects
Time transfer to UTC
Constellation status
The navigation message is transmitted by the satellite on the L1 data link at a rate of of 50 bps.
It is made up of five subframes, subframe 1, 2, 3 contain 10 words, each word have 30 bits.
So each subframe being 300 bits long.
Subframe 4, 5 are subcommuated 25 time each.
Every subcommuated page has 10 words and 300 bits long.
Each 30 bits word contains 24 data bits and 6 parity bits, the parity bits can all be stripped, so
every word may have 24bit (3 bytes) useful.
39

According to GPS standard position service (SPS) signal specification, the structure within the
navigation message is as per following table:
Table 4. Navmsg
SUB Total Elapsed
FRAME 0 30 300 bits time

1 TML HOW CLOCK CORRECTION DATA 300 6 sec.
2 TML HOW ephemeris of transmitting satellite I 600 12 sec.
3 TML HOW ephemeris of transmitting satellite II 900 18 sec.
4 TML HOW page n 0f 25 - messages,
ionosphere, UTC, etc 1200 24 sec.
5 TML HOW page n 0f 25 - almanac,
health status, etc 1500 30 sec.
Note: The subframe ID number is part of the HOW word.
TML : Telemetry Message
Table 5. Telemetery message
One word = 30 BITS, 24 DATA, 6 PARITY
word 0 30 300 Total bits
1 TML 8-BIT PREAMBLE 24-BIT DATA 6-BIT PARITY

40

HOW : HANDOVER WORD
One word = 30 BITS, 24 DATA, 6 PARITY
Table 6. HANDOVER WORD
word 0 30 300 Total bits
1 HOW 17-BIT TIME OF WEEK 7-BIT DATA 6-BIT PARITY
The Navigation Message
The NAV-msg is superimposed on both the P-code and the C/A-code with a data rate of 50
bits/sec.
The NAV-msg contains 25 data frames, each frame consisting of 1500 bits. Each frame is
divided into 5 sub frames of 300 bits each.
It will therefore take 30 seconds to receive one data frame and 12 /2 minutes to receive all 25
data frames.
Sub frames 1, 2 and 3 repeat the same 900 bits of data on all 25 frames.
This allows the receiver to obtain critical NAV-msg data within 30 seconds.
This ensures that the receiver need not wait for a long period (12 to 15 minutes) to provide the
first position. It can do so within the first minute.
The data in the NAV-msg is normally valid for a 4 hour period.
The NAV-msg contains GPS system time of transmission, a Hand Over Word (HOW) for the
transition from C/A to P-code tracking, ephemeris (almanac) and clock data for the particular
satellite being tracked, and almanac data for all the satellite vehicles (SVs) in the constellation.
Additionally, it contains information such as satellite health, coefficients for ionospheric delay
model for C/A-code users, and coefficients to calculate Universal Coordinated Time (UTC).
41

ACCURACY AND ERROR SOURCES
Accuracy of GPS RECEIVERS
The following factors influence the final positioning accuracy obtainable with GPS:
The precision of the measurement and the satellite geometry.
The measurement processing technique adopted.
The accuracy with which atmospheric and ionospheric effects can be modeled.
The accuracy of the satellite ephemerides.
GPS exhibits statistical accuracy distributions because of two important parameters, which are
continuously variable.
(a) The User Equivlant Range Error (UERE)
(b) The Dilution of Precision (DOP)
UERE is a measure of the error in the range measurement to each satellite as seen by the
Receiver. UERE tends to be different for each satellite and tends to be at a minimum following
an upload.
DOP is a measure of the error contributed by the geometric relationship of the satellites as seen
by the Receiver. DOP varies because the satellites are in constant motion and their geometric
relationships are constantly changing.
The above two errors are constantly present as normal variations in Accuracy, even
without failures in the satellites, Control Segment or Receiver.

Echo Sounder
Basic Principle
Short pulses of sound vibrations are transmitted from the bottom of the ship to the seabed. These
sound waves are reflected back by the seabed and the time taken from transmission to reception
of the reflected sound waves is measured. Since the speed of sound in water is 1500 m/sec, the
depth of the sea bed is calculated which will be half the distance travelled by the sound waves.
COMPONENTS
Basically an echo sounder has following components:
Transducer to generate the sound vibrations and also receive the reflected sound vibration.
Pulse generator to produce electrical oscillations for the transmitting transducer.
Amplifier to amplify the weak electrical oscillations that has been generated by the receiving
transducer on reception of the reflected sound vibration.
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Recorder - for measuring and indicating depth.
CONTROLS
An echo sounder will normally have the following controls:
Range Switch to select the range between which the depth is be checked e.g. 0- 50 m, 1 100
m, 100 200 m etc. Always check the lowest range first before shifting to a higher range.
Unit selector switch to select the unit feet, fathoms or meter as required.
Gain switch to be adjusted such that the clearest echo line is recorded on the paper.
Paper speed control to select the speed of the paper usually two speeds available.
Zero Adjustment or Draught setting control the echo sounder will normally display the depth
below the keel. This switch can be used to feed the ships draught such that the echo sounder
will display the total sea depth. This switch is also used to adjust the start of the transmission of
the sound pulse to be in line with the zero of the scale in use.
Fix or event marker - this button is used to draw a line on the paper as a mark to indicate certain
time e.g. passing a navigational mark, when a position is plotted on the chart etc.
Transducer changeover switch in case vessel has more than one switch e.g. forward and aft
transducer.
Dimmer to illuminate the display as required.
More on the principle of Echo Sounding
Echo sounder equipment makes use of sound (or sonic) waves, which differ from radio waves in
several ways. Sound waves vibrate in the direction of travel of the wave front Sound wave
velocity is comparatively low (in comparison with radio waves). Sound waves can travel through
a material medium such as a gas, a liquid or a solid, but not a vacuum.
Sound waves can be produced over a very wide range of frequencies, and these waves exert
definite pressure variations, which under certain circumstances can be measured. The audible
frequency or frequencies that human beings can detect varies, but an approximate range of
detection (also called as the normal range) can be considered as lying between about 20 Hz to
20,000 Hz. Those above the normal range of the human ear are termed ultrasonic or supersonic
frequencies.
There is a loss of energy when any waves are transmitted through a medium and the losses
increase as the frequencies increase. Sound waves also suffer losses, however in water such
losses are of the order of 1000 times less as compared to the loss in air. Supersonic vibrations are
therefore much more suitable for transmission in water than in air. The losses do increase due to
high frequency, however they do not become serious unless very high frequencies are used.
Water is an excellent sound transmitting medium as the velocity of sound in the water is known
accurately and it does not vary more than about 3%, if temperature and salinity change.
The speed of sound increases as water temperature, salinity and water pressure increases, and all
of the above vary with depth. The speed of sound varies from about 1432 metres/sec. in fresh
water, to about 1535 metres/sec. in salt water of high salinity. For depth sounding equipment
design purpose a sound speed value of 1500 metres/sec. are assumed.
43

For normal applications on merchant vessels, the indication of the depth value based on the
average speed of sound (1500 m/sec.) causes a minor error when changing from Salt Water (SW)
to Fresh Water (FW). Assuming there is a small correction adjustment for SW, the true depth in
FW is found to be about 3% less than the indicated depth. As can be seen, this deviation is very
small and thus insignificant for practical considerations.
When sound wave passes through an interface of two mediums, besides suffering loss of energy,
they refract as well as reflect (critical refraction) at the boundary where the two media meet.
The Practice of Echo Sounding
The echo sounding principles is used as follows, to measure depth. A short sound pulse is
transmitted from the ship's bottom towards the seabed where it is reflected back towards the hull
as an echo.
The time interval between transmission of the pulse and the receipt of the echo is measured, and
the depth is found from the expression:
Depth = velocity X time divided by 2
The frequency of the sound vibrations created in the water during pulsing is usually at the upper
end of, or above the audible range. A depth sounder instrument can be obtained in three different
forms based on the transmitted frequency:
.1 using 14khz frequency (Low end sounders)
.2 using 14 kHz to 30 kHz frequency (Normal sounders)
.3 using 30 kHz frequency (High end sounders)
The choosing of frequency depends on the requirements of the user. The chosen frequency is
basically a compromise to avoid interference from audible ship motion noise, and water losses
through the seawater.
Generally low frequencies are mostly affected by ship noise and high frequencies by water
losses, which are caused by absorption.
The sound pulses are created by transducers, which convert electrical energy on transmission,
and reverse the process when the echo is received. The sound energy is always transmitted as a
beam in a particular direction (directional beam) and it would be very wasteful to permit
spherical radiation.
Transducers are of two types:
Piezo-electric transducer
Magneto-striction transducer.
Piezo-electric transducer
This type makes use of the special properties of crystals (e.g. crystals of barium-titanate and
lead zirconate). If an alternating voltage is applied to the opposite faces of a flat piece of one of
the above materials, the crystal will expand and contract, and hence vibrate creating sound waves
for as long as the vibrations continue. The process is reversible, i.e. when varying pressure from
a returning echo, is applied to the opposite faces, an alternating voltage is generated across the
faces and the same can be further amplified and used to activate an indicator.
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Magneto-striction transducer
In this type, the use is made of the magneto-striction effect which is a phenomenon whereby
magnetization of ferromagnetic materials produce a small change in their dimensions, and
conversely the application of mechanical stresses such as weak pressure vibrations, as from an
echo to them, produce magnetic changes in them; e.g. a nickel bar when placed in the direction
of or strength of the magnetic field. If the nickel bar is placed in a coil with an alternating current
flowing through it (a solenoid), the varying current and magnetic field will cause the ends of the
bar to vibrate and hence create a sound wave. This is what happens when the transducer is
transmitting.
Type with specs 50 kHz - 100 W: Maximum depth measurable - 700 metres Type with specs 20
kHz - 100 W: Maximum depth measurable - 400 metres
The magneto-striction type would be fitted inside a cast elliptical housing or a circular housing in
such a way that the bottoms of the pistons are in contact with the sea (i.e. pierced hull type - see
details of this type later).
Another type, which is fitted internally, consists of a ring of thick nickel discs enclosed in a
winding to which the AC is applied. This resulting sound pulse is directed downwards through
the steel bottom shell by a reflector. The advantages of nickel ring types are that it is cheaper to
construct and damping is greater.
In both designs the sound pulses are directed down wards in a cone shaped beam to avoid loss of
sounding when the vessel is rolling. The process is reversible, as, when the echo returns, it
applies a varying pressure to the working faces of the transducer, which causes the magnetic
condition of the nickel to fluctuate at the same frequency. This varying magnetic field strength
induces a voltage in the winding round each piston leg and this voltage is amplified before being
applied to the indicator.
As oscillators must be in water dry forepeak tanks. Tanks may be flooded sufficiently to-keep
them submerged. Forepeak tanks are usually arranged so that when they are pumped out, enough
water is retained to keep the oscillators from becoming dry.
Echo sounding equipments may be divided into two main classes:
.1 Those that transmit and receive sound vibration through the shell plating of a ship,
referred to as 1nternal installation" class.
.2 Those that are in direct contact with the sea generally referred to as "pierced-hull
installation" class.
In the internal installation class, because of the shell plating, energy is wasted during
transmission and reception. For a shell plating thickness of 9.5 mm, about 15 per cent of the
energy gets through the plate and only 2 per cent gets through when the shell plating is 31.8 cm
thick.
The advantages of having an internal installation are:
.1 Equipment may be fitted without dry-docking the ship.
.2 Projectors or oscillators may be serviced or changed while the ship is afloat.
45

Sound wave energy is wasted if it is required to pass through a plate. The plate will prevent
sound waves to pass through, if the thickness of the plate is close to a quarter wavelength of the
sound wave; but if thickness of the plate is about a half wavelength then the steel plate becomes
transparent to the sound wave.
For a pierced-hull installation, the shell plating of the ship is first pierced and the gap filled in by
a thinner plate. If a steel plate is to be fitted, then the physical dimensions of the steel plate needs
to be small and the plating will have to vary in thickness from ship to ship because of different
frequencies used.
Thus for pierced hull installation the problem of using a frequency suitable for reasonable
penetration no longer applies and higher frequencies can be used.
With a very low frequency, the size of the oscillator becomes inconveniently large; secondly,
there is lack of selectivity from water and other noises within the audible range and finally, less
directivity.
The higher frequencies gives more improved selectivity from noise and better directivity is
possible, but there is less penetration.
Echo Sounding - Full cycle of operation
The full cycle of operations for one sounding is as follows:
The recording stylus starts each cycle as it moves pass the zero. It triggers an electronic
generator, which produces a known number of electrical oscillations, which are applied to the
transmitting transducer (Tr/Tx). TheTr/Tx creates the sound pulse, which is injected into the sea,
travels to the bottom, is reflected and returns as an echo to the receiving transducer, where it is
converted back into an electrical pulse. This is amplified and applied to the stylus, which has
moved across the recording paper, to indicate the depth against a suitable scale. The stylus
moves across the paper at a constant speed which is decided by the designer after he has decided
the following:
Maximum depth to be displayed,
Width of the paper and the SW velocity to be used.
The pulse length to be used for transmission is governed by a number of factors. The minimum
theoretical depth that can be measured is equal to half a pulse length. Since sound travels at
approx. 1500 metres per second, a pulse length of 1 millisec (ms) will mean that the theoretical
minimum depth, which could be measured, would be 1.5 metres. In practice it would be about
this value.
The difference between the theoretical and the practical values is because the transducer being a
resonant device does not stop oscillating immediately the electrical pulse ceases. It shows a
tendency to "ring" when energisedand this is usual for the time taken for 10 to 12 cycles. If
depths less than 1.5 m are to be measured then a shorter pulse length is required. One sounder
has a pulse length of 0.3 m, which gives a theoretical minimum sounding of 0.225 m and a
practical minimum of 0.45 m.
If a very deep measurement is to be made then more energy is required. This could possible be
achieved by increasing the amplitude of the pulse, but this is usually limited by the output of the
active element in the transmitter and therefore it is injected directly into the water. Sounders,
46

which have to cover very shallow and very deep sounding on different ranges, will usually be
designed so that the pulse length can be changed as the range is changed.
PULSE LENGTH
Shallow 0.3 milli sec Up to 200 or 400 metres
l to 5 milli sec 2000 metres or more
The commonest form of echo sounder has a display, which records the depth on electro-sensitive
paper. It may take the form of rotating arm moving anti-clockwise across the paper, which is
marked by the stylus at the end of the arm when a DC pulse is applied on receipt of the echo.
Another type has a moving belt to which the stylus is attached and which is made to move across
the paper from top to bottom at a constant rate, which is decided by the depth scale displayed.
The paper is marked in the same way, and the indicated depth is measured from the top of the
paper by a suitable vertical scale at the side.
Another type of display more suitable for shallow depths consists of a disc or arm carrying a
neon lamp at its extreme edge, which is spun round at constant speed. A scale is fitted round the
edge of the area covered by the spinning neon which is made to flash at zero on transmission and
again on receipt of the echo at the point in its revolution appropriate for the depth measured. The
overall recording accuracy claimed for one echo sounder is close to +/- 2% of the actual depth.
Recording Paper may be of two kinds, moist and dry. The moist paper is impregnated with a
solution of potassium iodide and starch. When a direct current is passed through it from the
stylus to the metal plate at the back, it releases iodine and causes a brown stain to appear. The
stylus is tipped with iridium. This action only takes place when the paper is damp - it becomes an
insulator when dry.
This type of paper should be kept in its airtight tins before use. If an echo trace on damp paper is
to be kept for reporting or other purposes, a line should be drawn down each side of the paper
while it is still damp to indicate the limits of the scale. The bottom trace and transmission line
should be drawn in pencil, the paper dried, preferably in a dim light, and then the paper should
be rolled up to prevent fading. An indelible pencil should preferably be used or a ballpoint pen
for all writing.
The Dry paper is a carbon impregnated paper base, metallised on one side and covered on the
other with a very thin film of fight coloured semi-conducting chemical. The metallised side
makes contact with the metal plate at the back, and the stylus moves over the chemically treated
side. When the echo returns, a pulse of current is applied to the stylus which destroys the
chemical film and exposes carbon beneath to show a black record in contrast to the gray paper,
carbon dust and possibly fumes will be released and these may be a health hazard. The recorder
must be sited so that adequate ventilation its possible. The dust, which is deposited on parts of
the recorder must be removed at require intervals using a soft rag or brush.
TRANSDUCER SITING
Satisfactory operation of an echo sounder depends on the transmission and reception of the
largest possible signal for a given amount of power. The siting of the transducer is important in
this respect to reduce attenuation on transmission and reception as far as possible. The ideal
position is one in which there is "solid" water free from aeration beneath the transducer, and
where the effects of surface, engine and propeller noise are at a minimum. There are few
47

positions which are suitable in every respect and a position found to be satisfactory in one design
of ship will not necessary give equally good results in another.
The principle source of aeration is the bow waves created by the ship. This wave rises some way
up the stem, curls over, and then is forced down beneath the ship, taking a quantity of air with it.
The resultant bubble stream normally starts about a quarter length of the ship from the stern, and
divides about three quarters of the length from the bow. The bubble stream varies in form and
intensity according to the speed, draught, shape of bow and hull, the trim of the ship as well as
the sea state. In ships with a bulbous bow the wave appears to dip water just abaft the stem, so
that the flow of bubbles is over almost the whole length of the vessel and the only satisfactory
forward site may be within the bulb. In oil tankers the after position is invariably chosen, usually
under the fore part of the engine room. Classification Society Lloyd Register does not permit
oscillators to be fitted underneath cargo space on vessels classed for carrying petroleum in bulk.
A position in the forepeak may appear to be the best, but in bad weather and light ship it would
be unlikely to give good results and may also be difficult to fit there. In laden ship of normal
design a position about a quarter of the length from the stem will often be found to give
satisfactory results. Ships often making long passages in ballast e.g. tankers, often find an after
position about three quarters of the length from the stem gives better results. If two are fitted, one
is fitted at one quarter and one at three quarter length abaft the stem.
Care must be taken to make sure a receiving transducer is a sufficient distance from the
propeller, and tests should be carried out to ensure this. They need to be sufficiently separated to
prevent interaction between them, but the separation should be as small as possible to ensure
accurate sounding in shallow water. Positions either side of the keel is often satisfactory.
Other factors, which should be borne in mind, are: fit in a horizontal position, sometimes slightly
projecting but faired off to avoid aeration. Avoid sites near bow thruster units, water intake pipes
and underwater log units.
Internal access to the transducer should be possible for maintenance. Any junction box should be
in a dry space and if possible the transducer should be in a dry place.
NOISE
All transmission systems are subjected to interfering signals of some kind.
CROSS NOISE
It is caused by vibration of the energy, which is transmitted out by a ship and goes directly to the
echo sounder receiver. The recorder shows a broad line on zero reading and this can mask echoes
totally.
THERMAL NOISE
It is generated in electronic devices by random movement of electrons in components and this is
amplified in the receiver in any radio system. In sonar system, using sonic waves below 50 kHz,
noise level can usually be ignored, as it is very small compared with the sea noise.
SEA NOISE
They are of two main kinds, the first are interfering wave action, and may be thought of as
background noise. Sources are fish, other ships, and noise from one's own ship particularly in
48

bad weather and close to land. For most purpose, the amplitude of disturbances at any instances
is unpredictable and taken, as a whole may be considered random. For this reason, the designer
must make sure that the signal is always recognisable above the noise level.
The second is noise produced by the interaction of the sea and the sonar system. This is generally
called "reverberation noise" and when transmitted into water, all the small reflectors in the water
such as bubbles, marine life, and mud and sand particles immediately affect it.
These multiple reflector produces a return signal (echo), which is theoretically continuous since
they exist at all depths. However the intensity of the transmitted pulse is reduced as it moves
away from the transducer and the intensity of the return signal also reduces in accordance with
the same law. The result is that after the end of transmission, the reverberation signal decreases
with time according to an inverse square law. Its effect can be considerably reduced by the use of
time variable gain or "initial suppression". This circuit is set to reduce the gain of the receiver to
a very low level immediately following transmission, but then allows the gain of reverberation
noise after the same has fallen below that of background noise.
Interpretation of Sounding
False Bottom Echoes. Second Trace Echoes
Echoes, which are received at a properly adjusted sounder, until after the stylus has completed
one or more passes across the paper and the next pulse have been, transmitted cause false
readings. Example of one revolution represents 1600 metres, and an indicated depth of 50 metres
could be sounding of 50 or 1650 or even 3250 metres. The correct depth can be ascertained if the
transmission circuit can be switched off with the stylus still moving. After switching off, on the
switch and then count the number of times the stylus crosses the paper before the echo re-
appears.
Reflection echoes
a) Double Echoes
Echoes received after reflection from the seabed, but which the hull or the sea surface back to the
bottom and then reflects thence to the transducer. They produce a second weaker echo at
approximately double the correct depth. It will fade out if sensitivity is reduced (may be received
up to several hundreds metres).
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b) Multiple Echoes
Echoes received after being reflected several times between the seabed and the surface or the
ship's bottom before the energy is lost. It causes equally spaced echoes on the trace. Reduce
sensitivity to fade out. Switch on to first phase and then phase deeper to locate first echo.
c) Variable Echoes
These are varying reflecting surfaces on the seabed. In general hard sand, coral, chalk and rock
are good reflectors and thick mud is a poor reflector. Stepped formation of rock result in side
Echoes from an object not immediately below the vessel but whose slant depth is less than the
depth of water.
d) Electrical faults, or man made noises.
Other False Echoes
These do not normally obscure the bottom echo and may be caused by
.1 Shoals of fish
.2 Layers of water of differing sounding velocities (salinity etc.)
.3 The deep scattering layer, which is a layer or set of layers, in the ocean, believed to
consist of plankton and which attenuate, scatter and reflect sound pulses. They lie between about
300-450 metres below the surface by day, and near the surface between sunset and sunrise (by
day, it is more pronounced when the sky is clear, than when overcast).
.4 Kelp or weed.
.5 Turbulence from the interaction of tidal streams or eddies with solid particles in
suspension.
SPEED ERROR
The speed of the recorder motor must be proportional to the velocity of sound in seawater and
the velocity is known to vary. The recorder motor running at an incorrect speed causes the speed
error. If the motor speed is too fast, it will record a greater depth and if it is too slow than a lesser
depth.
Other errors include Pythagoras error, error due to maladjustment, ECHO
SOUNDER CONTROLS
Mains
Dimmer
Range/Phasing/ scale
Gain
Other controls
Speed control
Zero adjustment/Draught setting
Change over transducer
50

Minimum depth alarm
PULSE length
Number of pulses per sec.
Checks on echo sounders
Twice yearly with hand lead, if reading is too high, then motor is going too fast.
ERRORS
Velocity Error - Increase in temperature and salinity of water increases velocity of sound in
water thus giving rise to an error in the depth displayed.
Aeration Presence of air bubbles below the transducer gives rise to false echoes. Air bubbles
are normally caused when a vessel goes astern, turbulence when rudder is put hard over or due to
pitching when vessel is in light condition.
Multiple echoes This is caused in shallow waters with a rocky bottom due to some of the sound
pulses reflecting up and down between the ships keel and the sea bottom before being recorded
on the display. The first echo is the correct reading.
False echoes In deep waters, by the time the sound pulse returns from the bottom, the stylus
may have already finished more than one revolution and thus the echo which will be recorded
will be a false one and the depth indicated will be much lower than the actual depth.
Pythagoras Error If the vessel has one transducer for transmitting and one transducer for
receiving, separated by some distance, the distance travelled by the pulse will be greater than the
depth of the sea bed in shallow waters.
MISCELLANEOUS
51

Comply with the maintenance instructions given in the manual. Normally it is just a monthly
cleaning of carbon / dirt deposits from the inside of the recorder.
Keep a stock of at least 1 spare stylus and 3 months stock of recording paper.
Compare the soundings obtained with the soundings given in the chart.
Maintain a log to enter the soundings obtained.
Some echo sounders have an alarm to alert the navigator when the sounding goes below the set
sounding.

52

Speed Logs

The Impeller Log
This type of log is usually fitted in small crafts.
The standard equipment consists of the following
1. The log tube assembly
2. The amplifier
3. Speed indicator and distance counter
The sensing device is at the end of a long-tube or probes, consisting of a small device called
impeller (the dynamic element could be either a small propeller or a paddle or a screw) at the end
of the probe, which is lowered into the water.
The tube is set with the port (opening) facing forward.
The water flow drives (or turns) the impeller and the rotation of the impeller induces an electrical
signal, which is picked up at the coils. The output is fed to the amplifier and is used to operate
the speed indicator. The rotating impellor's signal could also be used to provide a distance
measurement.
When speed (or distance) measurement is required, the log is lowered into the water, and when
not in use, is retracted inside the hull. Retraction of the log can be done manually or by a remote
hoisting arrangement operated from the navigating bridge or engine room.
53

The log-tube may become blocked or obstructed by foreign bodies such as small fish, seaweed
etc. The arrangement allows the whole tube to be withdrawn inside the vessel for inspection and
cleaning. In the event of the log-tube being bent by hitting an underwater obstruction such as a
sand bank or a large fish or more often caused by a wire or a rope having passed under the
vessel, the log-tube must be jettison.

This type of log can give only speed through water and is greatly affected by the
current flowing under the ship.
The Pressure type log (Pitot tube Log)
This type of log consist of
1. Two openings outside the hull of the ship, static tube that provides static pressure
and impact or Pitot tube that measures dynamic pressure or the water flow of pressure
2. Controller unit (pressure differentiator)
3. Speed and distance transmitter
4. Speed and distance recorder
54

Operations
The opening of the Pitot tube faces forward so that when the vessel moves forward, the water
causes a pressure at the tube this dynamic pressure is proportional to the speed at which the
vessel moves. The pressure differentiator measures the differential pressure. The Controller unit
converts the pressure difference into speed and distance units.

This type of log can give only speed through water and is greatly affected by the movement of
the water which would induce an extra pressure giving rise to error in readings.
ELECTRO MAGNETIC LOGS
This type of log consist of
1. Master Indicator
2. Preamplifier
3. Sensor
Operations
The sensing of speed makes use of law of electromagnetic induction
When the ship moves, the water passing through the hull acts as a conductor.
The magnetic field is produced by a solenoid, installed in such a way as to allow the field to
extend into water
55

This produces an EMF (electromagnetic force), which is measured and converted into the speed
of vessel through the water.

Principle

The electromagnetic log is based upon the Faraday-Maxwell induction law; Figure shows the
principle of the log.
The induced e.m.f. E is given by the following:
E = F x L x V
Where F = the magnetic field
L = the length of the conductor
V = the velocity of the conductor through the magnetic field.
In the EM log a direct current through the windings of a coil, generates a magnetic field. If the
conductors do not move relative to the coil they do not intersect the magnetic fines of force and
no voltage is induced in them.
56

In the EM log the F and L are maintained constants, therefore the induced e.m.f. is directly
proportional to the velocity V, which is the velocity of the vessel through the water.
The direction of the voltage E depends on the directions of the lines of force and the direction of
the velocity of the conductor water. According to the formula the induced voltage is proportional
to the velocity V.
Should the velocity have the opposite direction, the direction of the voltage would change too.
The electromagnetic log is based upon the Faraday-Maxwell induction law;
A direct current through the windings of a coil, generates a magnetic field.
Four conductors (ab, bc, cd and da) are arranged in the form of a loop around the coil.
If the conductors do not move relative to the coil they do not intersect the magnetic lines of force
and no voltage is induced in them.

Alternating current through the coil
Instead of a direct current, suppose that we send an alternating current through the coil. Then the
induced voltage that we will have would be also an, alternating voltage with amplitude that is
proportional to the velocity, V.
For the electromagnetic log an alternating voltage is preferred to a direct voltage.
The speed out put from an EM log depends upon the water flow by way of the sensors. Thus
siting of the probe is critical. This is so since if too close to the hull then due to the non-linearity
of the hull form the speed of the water flow may give a wrong representation of the vessels
speed. This is minimized by careful siting of the sensor as well as by calibrating the instrument
while installation.

57

Pitch and roll also give rise to errors however these are reduced by having an electrical time
constant that is longer than a period of vessel motion.
A well-adjusted log can have an accuracy of better than 0.1 percent of the speed range

This type of log can give only speed through water and is greatly affected by the current flowing
under the ship. However if the water is stationary at an anchorage there will be no speed shown.
In all the above logs the flow of water past and under the hull play a major part in the accuracy
of the readings.

58

DOPPLER LOG

Examples of the Doppler phenomenon with sound:
The Doppler principle is the effect, which makes the tone of a fire engine change as it passes the
observer.
The fire engine is continuously emitting sound waves but if it is moving towards the observer the
wave fronts arrive closer together, which is equivalent to a higher frequency.
As the fire engine starts to move away from the observer, the wave fronts arrive less frequently
at the observer and the tone is of a lower frequency.
As the train approaches a stationary listener, the pitch (frequency) of the rumbling sound of the
train is higher than when the train passes by, at which time the pitch sounds the same as if the
train were stationary.
As the train recedes from the listener, the pitch decreases.
Electromagnetic waves radiated by radar, as well as sound waves, obey the Doppler principal,
although electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light and audio waves travel at the speed
of sound.
The Doppler effect is a frequency shift that results from relative motion between a frequency
source and a listener.
If both source and listener are not moving with respect to each other (although both may be
moving at the same speed in the same direction), no Doppler shift will take place.
If the source and listener are moving closer to each other, the listener will perceive a higher
frequency - the faster the source or receiver is approaching the higher the Doppler shift.
If the source and listener are getting farther apart, the listener will perceive a lower frequency -
the faster the source or receiver is moving away the lower the frequency.
59

The Doppler shift is directly proportional to speed between source and listener, frequency of the
source, and the speed the wave travels.
In above figure v is the velocity of sound, and the propagation speed is c, every wave is
shortened due to the movement of the source by d

This shortening is equal to the source having moved a distance during the time required to
generate the wave.
The Doppler log is based on measurement of the Doppler effect.

It is seen that an observer, moving with a source of sound towards a reflecting plane, receives a
frequency:
Where fv is the received frequency, f the transmitted frequency, c the speed of sound and v the
speed of the source of sound.

By measuring fv and knowing f and c, the speed of a ship with regard to the seabed
can be determined.

60

Principle
A transmitting transducer below the ship continuously emits a beam of sound vibrations in the
water at an angle (usually 60 to the keel) in the forward direction.
A second transducer aboard receives the echo caused by diffuse reflection from the seabed.
A Doppler log uses a higher frequency than an echo sounder.
Advantages:
1.The resulting shorter wavelength leads to the more diffuse reflection desired; the echo from
a specular reflection would not be received, in view of the oblique incidence of the beam.
2.The shorter wavelength makes possible a smaller beam-angle and so avoids the dimensions of
the radiating face of the transducer becoming too large.
3.The emitted power of the sound vibrations spreads less and thus the echo is stronger.
Every point of the seabed is hit by the beam and causes a stronger or weaker echo in the
direction of the receiving transducer.
All these points are situated at a different angle a to the horizontal direction;
The frequencies received aboard must differ for all these points. However, the average
frequency is approximately that from point P, at an angle a to the horizontal.

Hence, though the distance between the ship and the seabed does not change, the received
frequency will differ (owing to the Doppler effect) from the transmitted frequency.
61

From the Doppler frequency-shift, which can be measured, the speed v of the vessel can be
found.

A second transmitting transducer directs a beam in a backward direction and a second receiving
transducer receives its echoes.
The speed of sound waves in the water c depends, however, on the temperature and (to a
smaller degree) on the salinity and the water pressure.
For that reason a thermistor is mounted near the transducers. (A thermistor is a resistance, the
magnitude of which depends on the, temperature.)
Deviations of the sound speed c from the normal value are passed to the system computer for
correction of its calculations.
Note that the reading of a Doppler log depends solely on the speed of the sound waves;

62

The propagation time of the pulse and its echo plays no role.
Automatic correction for changes in speed of sound
In some types of Doppler log, c/cos. is automatically kept constant. This is done by building
up each transducer from a large number (144) of electrostrictive elements.
For simplicity only four elements are shown:
If the four elements were supplied with alternating voltages in phase, the, resulting sound waves
would also be in phase, and the beam would be directed perpendicular to the radiating face of the
transducer, i.e. vertically.
However, the elements are fed with voltages that differ in phase by 120, so the sound waves
have the same phase difference.
At all points of the line AB, however, the sound vibrations are in phase.
Such a line or plane is called a wave front; propagation is always perpendicular to a wave front
Reflections

Both the echo sounder and the Doppler log react to reflections of sound waves from the seabed;
the former measures the propagating time and the latter the difference of the two frequencies.
If the beam is propagated from one water layer into a second one of different composition or
temperature, there will be reflection; there will also be a Doppler effect if the second layer moves
relative to the first layer and if the beam hits this layer obliquely.
In that case the frequency of the sound vibrations penetrating the second layer will also change,
if the speed of the sound waves in the second layer is different from that in the first layer.
For the echo, however, the reverse frequency change will occur and will cancel out the first
change.
A Doppler log measures the algebraic sum of all Doppler frequency shifts experienced by the
sound on its way to the bottom (or to a reflecting layer) and back again.
To this frequency shift must be added the shift that arises at the transition of the transducer
vibrations between the ship and the water, and vice versa. If the beam hits the bottom (bottom
lock) the total frequency shift is, proportional to the speed of the ship with regard to the bottom.
If there is no bottom contact, but only reflection against a water layer, the measured Doppler
shift is proportional to the speed of the ship relative to that water layer (water lock).
Janus configuration
The placing of the two transmitting transducers, to produce forward and backward beams is
called a Janus configuration.
Due to the Janus configuration a linear relationship exists between the speed of the vessel and the
measured frequency shift.
A further advantage is that vertical movements of the ship cause equal changes to the Doppler
shifts in the forward and backward beams, so the difference remains the same.
63

Vertical movements of the ship do not therefore influence the Doppler shift.

For measuring the athwart ship speed, a similar Janus configuration is mounted at an angle of 90
deg. with the along ships transducers;
The distance from the bridge of a large tanker to the bows may be 250 metres, so special
information about the athwart ships speed both fore and aft is required when mooring.
In that case athwart ships transmitting and receiving transducers are mounted both fore and aft.
Janus configuration. A term describing orientations of the beams of acoustic or electromagnetic
energy employed with Doppler navigation systems.
The Janus configuration normally used with Doppler sonar speed logs, and docking aids employs
four beams of ultrasonic energy, displaced laterally 90 from each other and each directed
obliquely (30 from the vertical) from the ships bottom. This is to obtain true ground speed in
the fore and aft and athwart ship directions.
These speeds are measured as Doppler frequency shifts in the reflected beams. Certain errors in
data extracted from one beam tend to cancel the errors associated with the opposite directed
beam.
Pitching and rolling
From the figure we see that the speed for the dotted position of the ship, and for the forward-
directed beam increases to V1; for the backward-directed beam V
1

decreases to V1.
64

Results are obtained by taking the difference of the Doppler shifts for the forward beam and for
the backward beam.
In the horizontal position of the ship when this vector becomes smaller this vector becomes
greater, or vice versa, so the sum of the two vectors is approximately 2v,. Hence the Doppler
measurement of the speed is not, in practice, influenced by pitching. The same applies to the two
athwartships beams during rolling.
Continuous-wave and pulse, systems
Hitherto it has been taken for granted that the transmitting transducers generate vibrations
continuously, thus making it necessary for each beam to have a separate transmitting and
receiving transducer.
This is called a continuous-wave (c.w.) system. Transmitting and receiving transducers are of
identical construction.
Other types are pulse systems. In such a system a transducer generates pulses and the same
transducer receives the echo between the transmissions. Therefore a pulse system needs only
half as many transducers as acontinuous-wave system.
In the continuous-wave system the reception of the echo can be disturbed by the continuously
emitted vibrations of the transmitting transducer going directly from transmitting to receiving
transducer (cross-noise or feedback).
With pulse systems this cannot occur, since a pulse is transmitted only after the echo of the
preceding pulse has been received, and the receiver is blocked during the transmission.
The majority of Doppler logs in use are pulse systems
Transducers

The angle of the along ships beams is about 3 deg., that of the athwart ships beam is about 8
degrees.
The frequency used is 100 to 600 kHz newer models have a transmission frequency of maybe 2
MHz.
65

The surface area of each transducer need then be only about 10 cm
2
.

The high frequency and the concave shape of the surface also lead to a small beam angle.
The higher frequency influences the reflection and the absorption but not the speed of
propagation.

The transducers are of the electrostnctive type.
Two possibilities for a Janus configuration.
Usually the transducers are inserted in a 'sea chest' or 'sea well, permitting their removal for
repairs or replacement without the ship requiring dry-docking.
The diameter of the hole required in the hull plates is about 350 mm.
Replacement of a transducer (1) in a sea chest without the ship being dry-docked can be done in
the following way.

After the transducer (which is connected to the other apparatus by means of a cable with a plug
and socket) has been disconnected, some nuts (2) are loosened and the bolts turned in the
direction of the arrows. Now the transducer (1) can be drawn upwards until it is above the flange
(4) in the upper part (3) of the sea chest. This upper part is then shut off from the lower part (6)
by means of a sliding valve operated by the hand wheel (5). In order to check that the valve is
properly shut a tap (not shown in the figure), connected to the upper part (3), can be opened. If
the water in the upper part is not under pressure the bolts (7) of the flange (4) may be
removed. By using grease, the transducer can be slid easily from the top flange (8). The
sequence is reversed when a new transducer is mounted.

66

Measurement of ship's speed relative to bottom or to water
Owing to absorption by particles in the water at a depth of 200 to 400 metres, the so-called deep
scattering layer (DSL), a Doppler log may only function, down to about 200 metres, unless the
set is equipped to work in the layer of 10-30 metres below the surface.
When reflections are received from this layer the speed of the ship relative to that layer, and not
relative to the bottom, is obtained. Thus uncertainty and confusion may occur.

Apart from the effect of the Deep Scattering Layer, the water at 10 to 30 metres below the keel
also causes an echo and Doppler effect by volume-reverberation.
This is called 'water track' (as opposed to 'bottom track'). In deep water there is a considerable
difference between the time of propagation for bottom reflection and that for reflection from the
mass of water at a depth of 10 to 30 metres. Receivers can be made operative for only a short
period (a certain 'window' of time) either immediately after or a short time after each pulse
transmission.

Suppose that the receiver has bottom contact, with the window occurring a short time after,
transmission.
If the Doppler log then loses bottom contact, the window is automatically shifted to occur
immediately after pulse transmission.
As a result, the receiver reacts only to reflections from the 10-30-metre water layer.
When this happens, 'bottom track' indicator is replaced by 'water track'.
When sufficiently low frequencies are used, echoes may still arrive from a rocky bottom at a
depth of 600 metres and more.
In some Doppler log, for depths less than 600 metres it is possible to switch manually to the
water track mode.

Uses of the Doppler log
For, example, for a tanker of 200 000 tonnes with a residual speed when tying up of 0.2 knots
(0.1 m/s), the energy to he absorbed by a pier or dolphin together with the ship's side is:
1/2mv
2
= 1000 000 joules.
The Doppler log can measure the speed to the nearest 0.01 knot or 5 mm/s; unfortunately,
however, it sometimes does not function correctly during docking if the screws of tugs cause air
bubbles (which reflect sound waves) to pass through the beams (aeration). Since the sound
waves are reflected off by the water air barrier the Doppler may give wrong readings.

RADAR

67

CRT

THE CATHODE-RAY TUBE (CRT)
The cathode-ray tube (CRT) and the picture tube of a television set are one and the same.

All CRTs have three main elements: an electron gun, a deflection system, and a screen.
The electron gun provides an electron beam, which is a highly concentrated stream of electrons. The
deflection system positions the electron beam on the screen, and the screen displays a small spot of
light at the point where the electron beam strikes it.
THE ELECTRON GUN
The cathode of the electron gun in the CRT is required not only to emit electrons, but also to
concentrate emitted electrons into a tight beam.
68

The cathode of the CRT consists of a small diameter nickel cap. The closed end of the cap is coated with
emitting material.
CRT cathode.

Because of this type of construction, electrons can only be emitted in one direction.
Notice that the emitted electrons are leaving the cathode at different angles. If these
electrons were allowed to strike the screen, the whole screen would glow.
Since the object of the electron gun is to concentrate the electrons into a tight beam, a special grid must
be used.
This special grid is in the form of a solid metal cap with a small hole in the centre.
The grid is placed over the emitting surface of the cathode and charged negatively in relation to the
cathode.
The dotted lines represent the direction of cathode emitted electron repulsion, as shown in the figure:
Operation of the CRT grid.

Since all emitted electrons leave the cathode (point C), their paths can be identified. An electron
attempting to travel from point C to point B (downward) will instead follow the path from point C to
point E to point P.
Consider an electron leaving from C in the direction of point A (upward). Its path will be curved from
point C to point P by electrostatic repulsion.
These curving electron paths are due to the negative potential of the grid coupled with the high positive
potential of the anode. The potential of the anode attracts electrons out of the cathode-grid area past
point P toward the screen.
69

The grid potential may be varied to control the number of electrons allowed to go through the control-
grid opening. Since the brightness or intensity of the display depends on the number of electrons that
strike the screen, the control grid is used to control the brightness of the CRT.
Electron-beam formation In a CRT.

The proper name, BRIGHTNESS CONTROL, is given to the potentiometer used to vary the potential
applied to the control grid. The control grid actually serves as an electron lens. It is this electronic lens
that is adjusted when the brightness control is turned on, on the Radar set.

Notice that the effect of the grid is to focus the electron beam at point P. After passing
point P, the electrons start to spread out, or diverge, again. Therefore, it becomes
necessary to provide some additional focusing to force the electrons into a tight beam
again.
This is done by two additional positively charged electrodes as shown in figure. The first electrode is
commonly called the FOCUSING ANODE.
Generally, the focusing anode is charged a few hundred volts positive with respect to the cathode.
Electrons emitted by the cathode are attracted to the focusing anode. This is the reason that they travel
through the small hole in the grid.
The second electrode, called the ACCELERATING ANODE, is charged several thousand volts positive in
relation to the cathode. Any electrons approaching the focusing anode will feel the larger electrostatic
pull of the accelerating anode and will be bent through the opening in the focusing anode and will travel
into the area labelled D.
70

You might think that once an electron is in this region, it is simply attracted to the accelerating anode
and that is the end of it. This does not happen. Because the accelerating anode is cylindrical in shape,
the electrostatic field radiating from it is equal in all directions. Thus, an electron is pulled in all
directions at once, forcing the electron to travel down the center of the tube.
Then, the electron is accelerated into the accelerating anode. Once it passes the mid-point (point E), it
feels the electrostatic attraction from the front wall of the accelerating anode, which causes it to move
faster toward the front. Once the electron reaches point F, equal electrostatic attraction on either side
of the opening squeezes it through the small opening in the front of the anode.
From there, it is joined by millions of other electrons and travels in a tight beam until it strikes the
screen (point S).
THE CRT SCREEN
The inside of the large end of a CRT is coated with a fluorescent material that gives off light when struck
by electrons. This coating is necessary because the electron beam itself is invisible. The material used to
convert the electrons energy into visible light is a PHOSPHOR.
Many different types of phosphor materials are used to provide different colored displays and displays
that have different lengths of PERSISTENCE (duration of display).
However the CRT suffers from the effects of secondary emission. In order to reach the screen, electrons
from the cathode are accelerated to relatively high velocities. When these electrons strike the screen,
they dislodge other electrons from the material of the screen. If these secondary emission electrons are
allowed to accumulate, they will form a negatively-charged barrier between the screen and the electron
beam, causing a distorted image on the CRT screen.
Therefore a special coating called an AQUADAG COATING is applied to the inside of the tube. This
coating is composed of a conductive material, such as graphite, and has the same high-positive potential
applied to it that is applied to the accelerating anode. This allows the aquadag to perform two functions.
First, since the aquadag coating is positive, it attracts the secondary emitted electrons and removes
them.
Second, because the aquadag is operated at a high-positive potential and is mounted in front of the
accelerating anode, it aids in the acceleration of electrons toward the screen.
71

Aquadag coating in a CRT.

To review the above:
Electrons are emitted from a specially constructed cathode and move toward the front of the CRT. The
number of electrons that leave the area of the cathode is determined by the cap-shaped grid. In
addition, the grid concentrates the emitted electrons into a beam.
The electron beam is focused and accelerated toward the screen by two electrodes:
The focusing anode and
The acceleration anode.
The electron beam strikes the screen and causes a bright spot to appear at the point of impact. Any
electrons released by secondary emission are removed from the tube by the aquadag coating.
DEFLECTION
At this point, you have a bright spot in the center of the CRT screen. For the CRT to work properly, the
spot must be moved to various positions on the screen. Because the beam is swept very quickly across
the CRT and the phosphor continues to glow for a short time after the beam has moved on, you do not
see a series of lines, but a continuous picture.
Impact of an electron beam on a CRT screen.
72

Electrostatic Deflection
There are two ways to move an electron (and thus an electron beam):
Either with a magnetic or
With an electrostatic field.
Because of this, there are three possible ways to move or deflect an electron beam in a CRT:
magnetically, electro magnetically, and electro statically.
All three ways are used in electronics. In general, though, electrostatic and electromagnetic deflections
are used most often.
A TV set as well as a Raster scan Radar, for example, uses electromagnetic deflection, while much of the
traditional radars use electrostatic deflection.
73

ELECTROSTATIC DEFLECTION

Here the electron is travelling between two charged plates, H
1
and H
2
. As can be seen, before the
electron reaches the charged plates, called DEFLECTION PLATES, its flight path is toward the center of
the screen.
In view B, the electron has reached the area of the deflection plates and is attracted toward the positive
plate, H
2
, while being repelled from the negative plate, H
1
.
As a result, the electron is deflected to the right on the inside of the screen.
When viewed from the outside of the CRT, the view would be as C.
But to be useful, this spot will have to be converted to a bright line, called a sweep, across the face of
the CRT screen.
74

Horizontal deflection.

In view A, five electrons are emitted in sequence, 1 through 5, by the electron gun. The right deflection
plate, H
2
, has a large positive potential on it while the left plate, H
1
has a large negative potential on it.
Thus, when electron 1 reaches the area of the deflection plates, it is attracted to the right plate while
being repelled from the left plate.
In view B, electron 2 has reached the area of the deflection plates. However, before it arrives, R1 and R2
are adjusted to make the right plate less positive and the left plate less negative.
Electron 2 will still be deflected to the right but not as much as electron 1.
In view C, electron 3 has reached the area of the deflection plates. Before it gets there, R1 and R2 are
adjusted to the mid-point. As a result, both plates have 0 volts applied to them.
Electron 3 is not deflected and simply travels to the center of the CRT screen.
In view D, electron 4 has reached the area of the deflection plates. Notice that R1 and R2 have been
adjusted to make the right plate negative and the left plate positive. As a result, electron 4 will be
deflected to the left.
Finally, in view E, the left plate is at its maximum positive value.
Electron 5 will be deflected to the extreme left.
Thus what you will see when you are facing the CRT is a bright luminous line, as shown in view E. While
this description dealt with only five electrons, in reality the line across a CRT face is composed of millions
of electrons.
75

Instead of seeing five bright spots in a line, you will see only a solid bright line.

In summary, the horizontal line displayed on a CRT is made by sweeping a stream of electrons rapidly
across the face of the CRT. This sweeping action, or scanning, is performed by rapidly varying the voltage
potential on the deflection plates as the electron stream passes.
Vertical Deflection
This is done by using a second set of deflection plates called VERTICAL-DEFLECTION PLATES.
Arrangement of deflection plates in a CRT, front view.
76

In normal usage, the horizontal plates sweep a straight line of electrons across the
screen from left to right while the signal to be displayed is applied to the vertical
deflection plates.

Notice T1; the output of this transformer is applied to the vertical-deflection plates.
The signals applied to the vertical plates are 180 out of phase with each other. Thus,
77

when one plate is attracting the electron beam, the other will be repelling the electron
beam. Because you are only concerned with what happens inside the CRT, this
circuitry will be eliminated and only the CRT and its deflection plates will be shown,
as in view B.
Vertical deflection in a CRT.

Now look at view C. While this illustration looks complicated, dont let it worry you. You have already
analyzed more complicated diagrams. The sine wave in the center of the screen is the signal that will be
displayed as a result of the two 180 out-of-phase sine waves applied to the vertical-deflection plates.
The five spots on the center sine wave represent the five electrons used to explain horizontal deflection.
Only now these electrons will be deflected both vertically and horizontally. Time lines T1 through T5
represent the time when each like-numbered electron reaches the area of the deflection plates.
Because you already know how the electron beam is swept or deflected horizontally, we will not discuss
horizontal deflection. Just remember that from T1 to T5, the electron beam will be continuously moved
from your left to your right. Now that you know where everything is on the illustration, you are ready to
discover how a sine wave is displayed on a CRT.
At time 1 (T1), the sine waves applied to both vertical-deflection plates are at their null points, or zero
volts. As a result, electron 1 is not vertically deflected and strikes the CRT at its vertical center. At time 2
(T2), the sine wave applied to the top plate is at its maximum negative value. This repels electron 2
toward the bottom of the CRT. At the same time, the sine wave applied to the bottom plate is at the
most positive value, causing electron 2 to be attracted even further toward the bottom of the CRT.
Remember, the beam is also being moved to the left. As a result, electron 2 strikes the CRT face to the
right of and below electron 1. At time 3 (T3), both sine waves applied to the vertical-deflection plates
are again at the null point, or zero volts. Therefore, there is no vertical deflection and electron 3 strikes
the CRT face in the center of the vertical axis. Because the electron beam is still moving horizontally,
electron 3 will appear to the right of and above electron 2. At time 4 (T4), the sine wave applied to the
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top vertical-deflection plate is at its maximum positive value. This attracts electron 4 toward the top
deflection plate. The upward deflection of electron 4 is increased by the negative-going sine wave (at
time 4) applied to the bottom deflection plate. This negative voltage repels electron 4 upward. Thus,
electron 4 strikes the CRT face to the right of and above electron 3. Finally, at time 5 (T5) both input sine
waves are again at zero volts. As a result, electron 5 is not deflected vertically, only horizontally.
(Remember, the beam is continually moving from right to left.)
While this discussion is only concerned with five electrons, vertical scanning, or deflection, involves
millions of electrons in a continuous electron beam. Instead of seeing five spots on the CRT screen, you
will actually see a visual presentation of the sine wave input.
The field of electronics is in a constant state of evolution. Transistors replaced most
vacuum tubes. Transistors were replaced by integrated circuits (ICs). Of all the tubes
discussed, the CRT is the least likely to be replaced in the near future.

Sections of a RADAR

Essential sections of a basic receiver and display

Antenna drive unit; rotates the antenna at constant speed
Heading marker switch; closes when main beam is in line with ships head and causes the PPI
heading mark to appear
Bearing transmitter; driven by the antenna which transmits electrically the antenna beam bearing
information
Electronic switch (T/R cell): or the transmit/receive cell (T/R), switches at high speed between
transmit and receive modes: essentially a receiver protection device
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The receiver circuit of the Radar is an extremely sensitive part of the receiver as it deals with
signal voltages of an extremely low value.
The voltages of the received echo signal may be as low as a millionth part of a volt. The receiver
must therefore amplify the signal by anything between 1 and 10 million times, so as to produce
adequate voltages to be displayed onto the CRT.
The echo signals that are received have however the same frequency as the transmitted pulse as
well as the same shape (envelope) as that which was imparted to the transmitted pulse by the
modulator and pulse forming circuit.
The weak echo signals; with the high frequency have now to be amplified; however the
amplification of signals with such high frequencies is extremely difficult. As such the frequency
(I.F.) that is finally amplified is a much lower frequency (between 45-60MHz, depending on the
manufacturer) but the shape of the pulse remains the same.
How do we get the lower frequency the Intermediate Frequency (I.F.)?
The process that is used is that, the incoming weak signal is mixed with another signal of nearly
the same frequency. This signal is generated within the radar unit in the Local Oscillator.
Thus the local oscillator single cavity resonant oscillator generates a single frequency, which
is mixed in the mixer circuit with the incoming weak echo signal. The frequency generated in
the L.O. is very close to that generated by the magnetron.
The frequency obtained from the local oscillator can and is changed by two specific controls
one a coarse control and the other a fine control.
The coarse control is control of the physical size of the cavity done by the manufacturer or at
the time of installation by the technician.
And the fine control is exercised by small variations in the electronic conditions associated with
the resonant cavity done by the radar operator mariner.
Mixer; an electronic circuit which converts the incoming echo signal at the transmission
frequency to a much lower value known as the intermediate frequency (IF); since it is easier to
process later.
9445 MHz from the echo, same as the transmit frequency
9505 MHz from the Local Oscillator
= 60 MHz Output of the mixer (IF) this is amplified.
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Local oscillator; provides a frequency stable output signal having a value of frequency either
higher or lower than the transmission frequency by a value equal to the IF.
Simultaneous application of the local oscillator output and the echo signal to the mixer will
produce a difference frequency, which is the IF.
The IF signals contains the same information as the incoming echo signal
Demodulator; produces video pulses from the IF signal pulses
Video amplifier; amplifies and processes the video pulses to a level adequate to intensity
modulate the PPI CRT beam current
Timebase waveform and control waveform generator; generates the timebase sawtooth sweep
waveform and other rectangular waveform used to control the display of targets during the sweep
time only: the circuits are synchronized to the transmitted pulse
Bearing receiver: a small machine, which receives antenna-bearing information and applies
mechanical drive to rotating scan coils. The coils rotate in synchronism with the antenna. There
are also other methods of producing a rotating scan at the PPI
Ranging circuits; two separate circuits one of that produces periodic short pulses to display
accurately spaced concentric rings on the tube face (Range rings), the other circuit produces a
variable radius ring (variable range marker) linked to an accurate range scale.

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Principle

Essential sections of a basic receiver and display

Antenna drive unit; rotates the antenna at constant speed
Heading marker switch; closes when main beam is in line with ships head and causes the PPI
heading mark to appear
Bearing transmitter; driven by the antenna which transmits electrically the antenna beam bearing
information
Electronic switch (T/R cell): or the transmit/receive cell (T/R), switches at high speed between
transmit and receive modes: essentially a receiver protection device
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The receiver circuit of the Radar is an extremely sensitive part of the receiver as it deals with
signal voltages of an extremely low value.
The voltages of the received echo signal may be as low as a millionth part of a volt. The receiver
must therefore amplify the signal by anything between 1 and 10 million times, so as to produce
adequate voltages to be displayed onto the CRT.
The echo signals that are received have however the same frequency as the transmitted pulse as
well as the same shape (envelope) as that which was imparted to the transmitted pulse by the
modulator and pulse forming circuit.
The weak echo signals; with the high frequency have now to be amplified; however the
amplification of signals with such high frequencies is extremely difficult. As such the frequency
(I.F.) that is finally amplified is a much lower frequency (between 45-60MHz, depending on the
manufacturer) but the shape of the pulse remains the same.
How do we get the lower frequency the Intermediate Frequency (I.F.)?
The process that is used is that, the incoming weak signal is mixed with another signal of nearly
the same frequency. This signal is generated within the radar unit in the Local Oscillator.
Thus the local oscillator single cavity resonant oscillator generates a single frequency, which
is mixed in the mixer circuit with the incoming weak echo signal. The frequency generated in
the L.O. is very close to that generated by the magnetron.
The frequency obtained from the local oscillator can and is changed by two specific controls
one a coarse control and the other a fine control.
The coarse control is control of the physical size of the cavity done by the manufacturer or at
the time of installation by the technician.
And the fine control is exercised by small variations in the electronic conditions associated with
the resonant cavity done by the radar operator mariner.
Mixer; an electronic circuit which converts the incoming echo signal at the transmission
frequency to a much lower value known as the intermediate frequency (IF); since it is easier to
process later.
9445 MHz from the echo, same as the transmit frequency
9505 MHz from the Local Oscillator
= 60 MHz Output of the mixer (IF) this is amplified.

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Local oscillator; provides a frequency stable output signal having a value of frequency either
higher or lower than the transmission frequency by a value equal to the IF.
Simultaneous application of the local oscillator output and the echo signal to the mixer will
produce a difference frequency, which is the IF.
The IF signals contains the same information as the incoming echo signal
Demodulator; produces video pulses from the IF signal pulses
Video amplifier; amplifies and processes the video pulses to a level adequate to intensity
modulate the PPI CRT beam current
Timebase waveform and control waveform generator; generates the timebase sawtooth sweep
waveform and other rectangular waveform used to control the display of targets during the sweep
time only: the circuits are synchronized to the transmitted pulse
Bearing receiver: a small machine, which receives antenna-bearing information and applies
mechanical drive to rotating scan coils. The coils rotate in synchronism with the antenna. There
are also other methods of producing a rotating scan at the PPI
Ranging circuits; two separate circuits one of that produces periodic short pulses to display
accurately spaced concentric rings on the tube face (Range rings), the other circuit produces a
variable radius ring (variable range marker) linked to an accurate range scale.
T/R cell (Transmit and Receive Cell)
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The cell prevents magnetron high-level power from entering the receiver arm and protects the
sensitive receiver crystals from damage when the transmitted pulse is present.
During periods of no transmission the cell allows the received signal to reach the receiver
crystals. The cell is a chamber filled with inert gas. When the magnetron fires, the gas very
rapidly ionizes producing a switching action, which directs the RF power to the antenna and
away from the receiver.
At magnetron switch-off, the cell very rapidly de-ionizes to allow received signals at short
ranges to be processed by the receiver.
The mixer
Receiver crystals are in fact semiconductor diodes capable of rectifying radio frequency currents
in the- Super Heterodyne Frequency (SHF) band and are arranged in a mixer circuit to operate in
conjunction with the localoscillator.
The arrangement converts all incoming RF signals at super-high frequency down to a much
lower radio frequency known as the intermediate frequency (IF) where the signal can be
amplified and processed using conventional RF circuit design.
The conversion is achieved by superb heterodyning the received signals with a locally generated
stable signal produced by a local oscillator circuit.
A Gunn diode is the preferred choice of local oscillator since it produces adequate
output power, operates at low voltage levels and has lower noise output than its predecessor, the
klystron.
The local oscillator is tuneable over a range of a few megahertz by means of an electronic tuning
control.
The head amplifier amplifies the target signals now converted to the IF.
The effect of applying the target return signal is to produce sum and difference frequencies at the
mixer output.
For example, if Echo frequency = 9400 MHz and
The local oscillator equals 9460 MHz or 9340 MHz, as the case may be.
Then the frequencies produced are 18 860 MHz or 18 740 MHz (being the sum values) together
with 60 MHz, the difference frequency.
The sum and original frequency components are de-coupled at the mixer output and the
difference frequency is the desired IF.
Raw echo signals converted to the IF will retain the same pulse length as that of the transmitted
and received SHF signal.
The IF amplifier
The purpose of the IF amplifier is to amplify the IF signals produced by the mixer to a level
sufficient to operate the video detector (usually a few volts).
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Pulse elongation
A facility is provided to artificially lengthen the stored video signals by a fixed length of
time. The effect at the display is to produce a more prominent paint of the digitized video.
Pulse stretching is usually made selective in that it is only applied to pulses above a fixed
duration usually on the 6-96 nm ranges and only to displayed video beyond about 3 nm.
Echoes having duration less than that of the transmitted pulse are rejected and not elongated.
Pulse Shape:

The Modulator unit includes a very fast operating switch (electronic) which allows the discharge
of the energy stored in the Pulse Forming Network.
(Silicon controlled rectifier like a diode, allows current to flow only in one direction. The SCR
however will allow current to flow only if a trigger pulse is applied to a control electrode. When
the trigger pulse is present the opposition to current offered by the SCR drops instantly to
virtually zero. This produces a pulse of current having an extremely fast rise time.)
The Pulse Forming Network stores the energy in capacitors. Capacitors can store energy and
when triggered discharge this energy into a circuit but ordinary circuits have a long discharge

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time and consequently the charge falls to low levels thus this defeats the steady charge that is
required in a Radar circuit. This is overcome by a series of capacitors and inductors.
Note that no signal is required to terminate the discharge, whenever the energy is drained out the
pulse is terminated.
The duration of the discharge and thus the pulse length is therefore is a function of the amount of
energy stored in the capacitors.
The amount of energy stored again is determined as to how many sections of the Network are put
to use, this is determined by the selection of the Pulse Length.
Thus it is seen that selection of the Pulse length will determine the amount of energy released by
the system and therefore the amount of energy contained in a pulse and this will affect the
ranging capabilities of a Radar.

Nature of Target

Material of the target:
Different materials respond differently to radar pulses, in general all good conductors of
electricity are in general good material for radar reflection.
Thus we have:
Surfaces that absorb and then re-radiate the energy on the same frequency metal.
Surfaces that absorb and then re-radiate the energy on a different frequency
Surfaces which absorb and re-radiate very little energy, the balance energy is used to raise the
temperature of the material vegetation (microwave cooker)
Surfaces that are semi-transparent to radar energy GRP/fibre glass boats

Thus we have steel, which is a very good reflector material, and wood that is a poor reflector
material. As mentioned fibre glass hulls are extremely poor material for reflection.

Surface texture of the target:
Specular reflection, is a term used to describe reflection as would happen in an orderly way, the
way a mirror/mirror like surface reflects light. Scattering is kept to a minimum.
Diffuse reflection is the opposite of specular reflection; here the reflection is not orderly since
the roughness of the reflecting surface sends the reflected beam in a myriad of directions.
Though the laws of physics are maintained the minute irregularities of the surface send the beam
in different directions.
A perfectly smooth surface is smooth depending on the person feeling the surface. A child may
feel a surface extremely rough which when felt by a workmans hand would feel smooth.
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The same occurs in nature, the smoothness of a surface is dependent on the wavelength of the
light striking the surface and thus reflecting off the surface and entering our eyes.
Thus a surface, which has irregularities on the surface when a light beam is reflected from it, will
appear to be smooth to a radar wave which has a wavelength much longer than light waves.
So even though the light reflection would be diffuse from this rough surface, the radar beam
would be specular.
This so because the wavelength of light is about 0.001 mm, in comparison to radar pulses which
have a wave length of either 30 mm or 100 mm.
Thus a target the aspect of which is poor would if the surface were rough to radar waves appear
to be a fairly good reflector.
Aspect of the target:
The aspect of the target is the angle, which the radar beam makes with the plane of the reflector.
Thus if the beam strikes the plane of the reflector at 90, the aspect is said to be 90. The
reflection at an aspect of 90 will be the best and the reflection deteriorates as the aspect changes
to any other angle.

Reflectors

Aids To Radar Navigation
Trihedral reflector
Most radar reflectors are variations on the 3-sided corner reflector, also known as a corner cube
or a trihedral reflector.
The principal echo from a trihedral reflector will be strongest when its pocket is oriented
directly towards the radar.
As the trihedral reflector is rotated off this axis in any direction, the echo becomes weaker, and
drops by half (-3 dB) at an angle of 12 to 20 from the axis of symmetry, depending on its
specific shape.
With increased rotation, the return continues to drop to almost zero as one of the
three sides approaches an edge-on attitude to the radar.
When one edge is exactly edge-on, there will be a strong but narrow return, caused by the other
two edges acting as a dihedral (2-sided) reflector, or one side acting alone as a flat plate reflector.
These returns can be very strong, but so narrow in angle as to have little value.
88

89

Octahedral Reflectors
The classic octahedral reflector is made of three planar circles or squares of metal intersecting at
right angles, forming eight trihedral reflectors.
In the usual catch rain position, one trihedral will face up and one down, and the
remaining six are arrayed around a circle, three oriented 18 above the equator, and
three 18 below.

This optimizes the return from the pockets, and avoids the nulls or gaps as best as is possible,
but only at a 0 angle of heel.
Considerations of heel angle has led to the double catch rain position (see figure), with one
planar surface oriented vertically along the vessels axis, and the other two planes 45 from the
vertical.
This is not the ideal with no heel angle, but moves towards the catch rain position as the boat
heels.

Radar navigation aids help identify radar targets and increase echo signal strength from
otherwise poor radar targets.
Buoys are particularly poor radar targets. Weak, fluctuating echoes received from these targets
are easily lost in the sea clutter.
To aid in the detection of these targets, radar reflectors, designated corner reflectors, may be
used.

These reflectors may be mounted on the tops of buoys. Additionally, the body of the
buoy may be shaped as a reflector.
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Each corner reflector, shown, consists of three mutually perpendicular flat metal surfaces.
A radar wave striking any of the metal surfaces or plates will be reflected back in the direction of
its source. Maximum energy will be reflected back to the antenna if the axis of the radar beam
makes equal angles with all the metal surfaces. Frequently, corner reflectors are assembled in
clusters to maximize the reflected signal.
Although radar reflectors are used to obtain stronger echoes from radar targets, other means are
required for more positive identification of radar targets.
Radar beacons are transmitters operating in the marine radar frequency band, which produce
distinctive indications on the Radar displays of ships within range of these beacons.
There are two general classes of these beacons:
Racons, which provide both bearing and range information to the target, and

Ramarks which provide bearing information only.

A racon is a radar transponder which emits a characteristic signal when triggered by a ships
radar.
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The signal may be emitted on the same frequency as that of the triggering radar, in which case it
is superimposed on the ships radar display automatically.
(The signal may be emitted on a separate frequency, in which case to receive the signal the
ships radar receiver must be tuned to the beacon frequency, or a special receiver must be used.)
In either case, the PPI will be blank except for the beacon signal.
However, the only racons in service are in band beacons which transmit in one of the marine
radar bands, usually more often in the 3centimetre band though the 10 centimetre ones are also in
use.
The racon signal appears on the PPI as a radial line originating at a point just beyond the position
of the radar beacon, or as a Morse code signal displayed radially from just beyond the beacon.
A ramark is a radar beacon which transmits either continuously or at intervals. The latter (Racon)
method of transmission is used so that the PPI can be inspected without any clutter introduced by
the ramark signal on the display.
The ramark signal as it appears on the PPI is a radial line from the center.
The radial line may be a continuous narrow line, a broken line, a series of dots, or a series of dots
and dashes.
Radar beacons (Racon);
A receiver-transmitter device associated with a fixed navigational mark which, when triggered
by a radar, automatically returns a distinctive signal which can appear on the display of the
triggering radar, providing range, bearing and identification information.
Transponder
A receiver- transmitter device in the maritime radio navigation service which transmits
automatically when it receives the proper interrogation, or when a transmission is initiated by a
local command. The transmission may include a coded identification signal and/or data. The
response may be displayed on a radar PPI, or on a display separate from any radar, or both,
depending upon the application and content of the signal.
Transponder is a device which when properly interrogated can provide for ship target
identification and echo enhancement with the proviso that such enhancer should not significantly
exceed that which could be achieved by passive means on the radar PPI of an interrogating ship
or shore station;
Transponder are used to meet the following operational requirements
identification of certain classes of ships (ship-to-ship)
identification of ships for the purposes of shore surveillance.
search and rescue operations.
identification of individual ships and data transfer.
establishing positions for hydrographical purposes.
In making a landfall and in harbour approaches a problem of navigation is the identification of
lighthouses and lightships marking either hazards or approaches to buoys channels. In
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conditions of poor visibility many vessels may congregate in harbour approaches, and positive
identification of a single known mark - light vessel or buoy may enable a channel to be identified
among many ship echoes.
A racon is required to transmit a signal, the response each time it receives a pulse from the
radar set which may have any frequency within the 200 mHz wide band.
The response of the in-band racon must be of a frequency that can be received and processed
by th same radar.
The Racon may receive the radar pulse via a broad band emitter covering the full 200 mHz in
order that it may be picked by the radar receiver, tuned to a particular frequency within the band.
The usual method is to alter the frequency of the response a function of time and repeat this
periodically in a saw-tooth fashion.
As a result the radar will pick up the response only at those moments that the transmitted
frequency is within the bandwidth the radar received; at other moments the response will not
received.
A slow sweep in-band Racon, the frequency sweep takes place at slow rate (2-4 mHz) and the
process is consequently repeated long intervals of time (50 - 100 s).
In that case the response is not received at every sweep of the radar beam over the Racon; fact
the period that no information is received may be too long for navigational purposes.
This disadvantage is overcome in a fast sweep Racon where the frequency of the response is
altered very fast, so that it sweeps through 200 mHz in 5 - 7 microsec.
The problem does not present itself with Fixed Frequency Racon,as the response is always
transmitted at the same frequency and is picked up by a special receiver at the radar.
The slow sweep in-band Racon response can consist of a single pulse, usually of some 45
microsecond duration for every radar pulse received.
The radar pulses recur at the rate of the PRF and the triggered responses which integrate to
provide a radial paint on the PPI beyond the target, 3.6 n. miles long for a 45 micros response.
This paint starts at a short distance from the target which is determined by the overall system
delay of the Racon.
The indication on the PPI is a flash towards the edge of the screen the bearing of the beacon and
at a range some 300 metres great than the true range of the Racon.
The response may be coded to consist of a number of consecutive pulses of predetermined
duration, thus providing a characteristic paint on the PPI for the purpose of identification.
Most radar sets are equipped with a differentiator circuit for the purpose of suppressing rain
clutter.
The differentiator reacts up sudden alterations of the incoming signals and accentuates the
suppressing constant echoes with a slow rise time. The pulse of slow sweep Racon lasts at least
several microseconds even when coded and it is purposely given slow rise time. Its
characteristics therefore resembles those of rain echoes and can be suppressed by actuating the
differentiator. This is of advantage when interference is caused by side lobe triggering at short
range, as the interference can be removed at will by means of the differentiator.
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Obviously, if a slow sweep in-band Racon is hidden in rain echoes, the differentiator may
remove both the rain and the Racon from the screen.
IALA recognises a requirement for 3 types of Racon
Long range Racon, for the purpose of enhancing the echo of and identifying a landfall mark at a
maximum range of 25 n.miles. This Racon would use a sweep duration of 90- 120
seconds. The Racon antenna can have a narrow vertical angle of divergence and so constructed
as to have a high gain in the approach sector.
Medium range Racon, for the coastal navigation and identification of navigation marks at ranges
of 8 to 15 n. miles. The sweep duration should be 60 -90 seconds.
Short range Racon, for ranges up to 6 n. miles and for use in inshore waters.
A faster sweep rate if necessary in order to provide more frequent information and a sweep
duration of 60 seconds or less is recommended.
This equipment, often destined for buoys, must have a wide vertical angle of divergence and
therefore be fitted with a low gain antenna.
Marine Racon utilised a coding unit which can give a choice of eight three
digit morse signals. i.e. the letters G.R.O.W.D.U.S.K. followed by a normal racon flash towards
the edge of the screen. When two Racons are sited so close to each other that each triggers
its neighbour, a virtual continuous transmission will be the result. This is a situation that should
be avoided.
If a radar equipment and a Racon are installed in close proximity to each other such as may be
the case in a lightvessel, mutual. interference and possible damage to the equipment may be
expected when they operate at the same time. This may be overcome by the application and
complicated equipment.
When a Racon is mounted on a buoy, its position should be monitored; shipping must be warned
and the Racon emission switched off by remote control if the buoy is known to be off station.
RAMARK
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
A RAMARK is a beacon that provides bearing information only.
It comprises an unsychronized transmitter of which the frequency is swept over the marine band
so that its transmission can be received and displayed by any commercial radar set operating in
the band for which the beacon is designated (X-band or S-band).
Consequently it is an in-band beacon.
Whenever the emitted frequency is within the radar receiver bandwidth the radar will pick up
and display the signal each time the antenna is directed at the RAMARK.
In this way a duty cycle can be introduced whereby periodic information is provided at longer or
shorter intervals depending on the sweep rate and the receiver bandwidth, as in the case of slow-
sweep in-band Racon. The transmission may be coded by pulse or by frequency modulation in
order to provide identification; this appears on the PPI as a succession of dots or dashes.
The possibilities of coding are thus very limited.
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POWER, RANGE AND INTERFERENCE :
Interference can be caused by a Ramark at close range when its emission is picked up by the side
lobes of the radar antenna. This results in a wide sector of paint on the PPI which can in an
extreme case cover the entire screen and obliterate all echoes.
This interference is much more severe than that experienced with Racon, the latter being
confined to ranges greater than that of the target and being limited by the length of the
response. A long duration Ramark duty cycle, either obtained through a slow sweep rate or by
intermittent, transmissions may be employed to ensure that there is a minimum acceptable period
of time that the PPI is clean. With a slow sweep rate long pulses may be used in which case, the
interference may be removed by the differentiator.
However, at moments that Ramark information is needed the differentiator must be switched off,
and the interference then experienced will persist and spoil the radar picture for some time after
the differentiator is switched on again, because of the afterglow properties of the radar screen.
The Ramark signal on the PPI originates from the ships own position on the screen. When
within range of several such beacons this position becomes the hub of a number of spokes and
this makes the picture very crowded in the area close to the vessel which is so crucial for its
safety. Because Ramark suffers from some serious disadvantages and only provides bearing
information its application has been limited.
Swept frequency radar beacon
A radar beacon in the maritime service which is capable of transmitting a warning signal,
automatically, to any radar-equipped ship in its vicinity - the beacon will be triggered
automatically by the transmissions of any radar operating in the appropriate radar band the return
signal is to be displayed on the PPI of the triggering radar.
Swept frequency radar beacons are used only for the following purposes; it should not be used to
enhance the detection of marine craft.
Ranging on and identification of positions on inconspicuous coastlines.
Identification of position on coastlines which permit good ranging but are featureless.
Identification of selected navigational marks both seaborne and land based.
Landfall identification. as a warning to identify temporary navigational hazards and to mark new
and uncharted dangers.
Fixed frequency radar beacon :
A radar beacon in the maritime radio navigation service which is capable of responding
automatically to any radar-equipped ship in its vicinity, and which returns a signal on a fixed
frequency which can be displayed on the PPI of a suitably configured radar - the beacon will be
triggered automatically by the transmission of any radar operating in the radar band, the signal
may be displayed continuously, either separately or super-imposed on the radar picture, or may
be switched off, at the option of the operator.

Controls
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Anti-clutter rain control (FTC)
The echo energy due to an individual raindrop is very small but the combined effect of returns
from rainstorm cause rain clutter, which is displayed, on the indicator as a bright indistinct area
of paint.
In addition, the video signal can be passed through a differentiating or fast time-constant
(FTC) circuit.
The FTC circuit is generally a combination of capacitance and resistance having a time-constant
much shorter than the returned video pulse length.
Such pulses will therefore be differentiated when passed through the filter.
Rain clutter builds up a Root Mean Square (RMS) voltage due to the volume of the rainstorm
and behaves as if the rain was returning a much longer pulse than that transmitted.
The act of passing all video signals through such a circuit is to considerably reduce the effect of
the rain on the display whilst having little effect on a discrete target return which echoes a
consistent pulse.
The degree of control may be fixed or variable; variable controls must be used with care since
loss of signal can occur due to maladjustment.
The video signal after amplification is used to intensity modulate the cathode ray tube.
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Range ring generator and control
Range ring generation is a mandatory requirement.
The range scales provided for such sets have as a minimum requirement range scales of 1.5, 3, 6,
12 and 24 nm, and one range scale of not less than 0.5 and not greater than 0.8 nm.
On the 0.5 to 0.8-nm scale at least two range rings are specified and on the other mandatory
ranges six range rings must be provided.
Rings are generated from the output of a stable oscillator, which is in some cases crystal
controlled. The waveform generated is shaped to give short duration pulses at the generator
frequency and synchronize to the timebasesweep.
These pulses are superimposed on the video information in the combining circuit and appear on
the screen at equal intervals of time and therefore range, along the timebase sweep as bright dots
of light.
Rotation of the sweep produces a series of concentric rings from which the range of a target may
be interpolated.
The range ring generator switched to the appropriate frequency by the action of the range
selector switch which also controls receiver bandwidth, pulse length and PRF selection for the
particular range in use.
Variable range marker
A circuit is provided which generates a marker synchronized to the timebase sweep.
A manual control varies the delay between timebase initiation and the time at which the VRM
pulse is produced.
Because the sweep is rotated the range marker pip will produce a bright circle on the PPI having
a variable radius.
The range scale of the VRM should coincide with the calibrated range rings value when the
VRM is overlaid with each ring on the PPI. Fixed range rings and variable range markers found
in type tested equipments must enable the range of a target to be measured with an error not
greater than 1.5 per cent of the maximum range of the scale in use or 70 metres, whichever is
greater. Variable ring and calibrated range rings must be capable of removal from the PPI,
usually achieved by turning the appropriate brilliance control fully anticlockwise.
Electronic bearing indicator
The electronic bearing indicator circuit generates a brightened radial line, sometimes broken into
dashes on the PPI and emanating from the sweep origin
Many EBL circuits generate the bearing line only once per antenna revolution which can make
the application of the indicator a slow process, since in moving the line the operator has to wait
one antenna revolution to ascertain its new position.
Modern radar sets generate the bearing line during the interscan period, which is the time
between the end of one timebase sweep and the beginning of the next sweep.
In this method the EBL is continuously displayed on the screen at all periods of an antenna
rotation, facilitating more rapid application of the line for bearing measurement.
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There are certain mandatory requirements for the EBL in type tested equipment.
It must have controllable brilliance,
be free to rotate clockwise and anticlockwise continuously through 360 degrees,
the direction of turning being the same as that of the control,
have a maximum thickness not exceeding 0.5 measured at the edge of the display,
be updated at least once per antenna revolution and be clearly distinguishable from the ships
heading marker.
An accuracy of 1 in bearing measurement is required for a target having an echo lying at the
edge of the display.
Off-centring
Off centring is achieved by adjustment of current passing through a set of fixed deflection coils
on the PPI tube neck.
Timebase generator
It is the circuit where a sawtooth current waveform is generated which when passed through the
PPI deflection coils causes linear deflection of the electron beam and linear movement of the
luminous spot on the PPI.
When the range switch is changed, the timebase is also changed to provide the necessary beam
deflection.
At short ranges the deflecting current amplitude necessary to deflect the spot from the scan
origin to the edge of the screen has to be reached in a very much shorter time than on one of the
longer ranges.
Assuming a centred display for the 0.5-nm range it will be 6.2 s and for the 48-nm range it will
be
595.2 s.
If the tube radius is eight inches, the luminous spot on the screen will travel at a velocity 96
times greater on the shorter range than on the longer range and would produce a very faint trace
if the same brightness level were used in both cases.
A brightening waveform known as the brightening pulse is generated and applied to the grid of
the CRT. This pulse is rectangular waveform acting in synchronism with the timebase waveform
and serves to lift the trace to the threshold of visibility.
IF gain control - contrast and brilliance
Receiver gain control acts on the IF amplifier allowing the radar user to adjust the overall signal
amplification.
Excessive gain will cause background noise to intrude upon the target paint.
Acceptable adjustment is obtained by turning the gain up to a point where only a faint speckled
background is visible.
98

The brilliance control should be adjusted to suit the ambient light conditions in the vicinity of the
PPI.
Excessive brightness in addition to affecting the eyes and the paint of the targets, can cause
defocusing of the screen image, an effect known as blooming where the target paint is saturated
by electron bombardment causing a bright halo to form around the paint.
Excess brilliance demands higher beam current than normal levels; it will ultimately reduce the
tube life and can result in the tube phosphor being burned.
To some extent tube brilliance control is interactive with the contrast control. The contrast
control adjusts the video level at the cathode, and careful adjustment selects the best level to
provide a sharp contrast between the paint and the darker unpainted background. Maladjustment
of brilliance can destroy the contrast and negate the effect of the contrast control.
Swept gain
A manually controlled swept gain circuit operates on the head amplifier.
The purpose of the circuit is to suppress signal return from the sea (sea clutter), which tends to
obscure the centre of the display.
The swept gain control reduces the gain of the head amplifier at short range on each transmitted
pulse and as the timebase generator sweeps the electron beam across the tube face the gain is
progressively increased with range.
Excessive anti-sea clutter control can cause loss of small short-range targets at the PPI.
The manual anti-sea clutter control acts on each timebase sweep, treating the received signal
information as though sea clutter was equal through 360 degrees of azimuth.
In practice, the sea returns vary as the scanner rotates and an automatic swept gain circuit can be
employed which dynamically adjusts the correct level of sea clutter control by rapidly sampling
signal returns from short ranges.
It is a mandatory requirement in type tested radars that automatic anti-sea clutter control can be
switched off by the user.
Local oscillator tuning
Although the L.O. is structured to operate at one particular frequency, it can be tuned by
placing it in a resonant cavity and then tuning the cavity, which is an integral part of the local
oscillator.
Cavities are coarse tuned to a particular resonant value by means of a mechanical screw
projecting into the cavity.
Fine electronic tuning is done by use of a variable capacitance diode placed in the cavity and
having its capacitance varied by means of bias applied from the manual tuning control at the
display position.
The fine tuning facility enables the user to produce the best possible display of target returns.
Heading mark switch
Different Radars have different arrangements for the heading marker switch.
99

In a magnetically operated reed switch, the contacts are operated whenever a small permanent
magnet mounted on the antenna drive passes over the switch.
The switch is invariably mounted on a small adjustable base plate carrying a scale graduated in
degrees of azimuth.
An overall possible adjustment of 5 is adequate, to a required accuracy of at least 0.5. Switch
action and magnet are mutually arranged to coincide when the main lobe of the antenna beam is
pointing along the ships heading. This action produces a bright radial line at the display with
own ship at the scan origin by brightening a few consecutive traces, to show the ships heading
on the indicator.
Type tested radars display heading lines whose thickness is 0.5 or less at the tube
periphery. The maximum error permitted of the heading marker line is 1.
Adjustment of heading mark
The display is unstabilized (relative motion ships head up). A small target is selected on which
visual bearings may be taken, its range being such that the radar will display the target echo as a
separate paint lying near the edge of the PPI on one of the shorter displayed ranges (say 1.5 nm).
Own-ship is then aligned and a visual bearing on the target is taken. When the ships head and
the visual bearing coincide, any error on the heading marker bearing at the PPI is noted (should
be reading zero).
Adjusting the heading mark contacts in the scanner housing compensates error and the visual and
radar bearings once more checked. In some equipment the heading marker can be adjusted by
rotating the stator housing of the synchro transmitter.
Power monitor
The main purpose of this is to give at the display an indication that power is being radiated in the
main beam.
Sensitive and accurate methods employ crystal detectors, which can be calibrated to indicate fall-
off in relative performance of the transmitter compared to some optimum level attained at
installation of the equipment.
A neon tube situated in the scanner housing if exposed to the main beam is ionised.
The ionisation of the tube varies with power irradiating it and the subsequent change of tube
resistance can be used as a direct indication of the power in the beam.
The performance monitor
It comprises a resonant cavity, with dimensions, which allow it to resonate within the marine
band. Radio frequency energy due to a transmitted pulse is fed into the cavity via an aperture
causing the cavity to resonate; the resonant oscillations will persist in the cavity for some time
after the pulse has terminated. During the resting period of the transmitter (receive period) the
cavity couples energy out of its aperture forming a return echo signal for the duration of the
cavity oscillations.
This cavity signal is processed by the receiver and display circuits and appears on the display,
brightening the timebase traces from the scan origin and extending for a measurable
distance radially from that origin.
100

Since the energy radiated from the performance monitor resonant cavity is directly proportional
to the power injected into it (losses being constant) the length of the brightened trace is measure
of the overall transmitted and received power.
Should the transmitter, the receiver or both be operating at less than so measured optimum value,
then the length of the displayed trace indicates a fall-off in the overall performance.
Plume and sunburst patterns
With the PM switch depressed, the cavity re-radiates energy directly into the waveguide during
the magnetron quiescent period and, due to the sweep actions involved produces a sunburst
pattern.
The length of the major spokes in the pattern occur when the echo box is resonating at
magnetron frequency, measurement of this length from the scan origin is a direct representation
of the power received.
Some installations use separate echo boxes installed above deck. Energy enters the box via an
aperture whenever the main beam of the antenna sweeps over it.
And the box, when switched on, re-radiates the energy. In this case the returned signal displays a
plume on the indicator approximately twice the width of the horizontal antenna beam.
Whilst PM echoes are being displayed, some target echoes may be obliterated, since the receiver
received most of the echo from the PM echo box. Use of the monitor is therefore limited to
occasional performance checks and for optimum tuning procedures.
Using the performance monitor
During use, controls such as the anti-sea clutter or anti-rain clutter control are set to a minimum
so that they have no effect on the displayed PM plume.
Gain and brightness are adjusted as required.
The same pulse length is chosen each time the performance monitor is used. A low range is
selected, such as the 1.5-nm range, and the VRM is adjusted to lie as close as can be visually
estimated to the extremities of the pattern. Correct tuning of the radar receiver will produce
optimum observed length.
When the radar is first commissioned the extent of the PM pattern is entered in the radar log, and
comparison can be made with this initial value obtained when the set is considered to be at its
best performance level. The radar observer quickly becomes familiar with particular radar set
and any shrinkage of pattern in subsequent checks indicates reduction in overall performance of
the set.
This could be due to a variety of causes:
ageing of the crystal, TR cell or magnetron,
receiver detuned,
water in the waveguide, etc.

101

The PM is used when a radar set is first switched on and is particularly useful for spot checks on
overall performance and tuning in conditions when there may be no visible returns on the display
to immediately indicate the set is correctly tuned.
Because the transmitted and the returned power are proportional, the reduction of the
performance monitor plumes to one half of its length would indicate a fall off of 3dB in overall
signal performance. Under these circumstances the possibility of losing many of the weaker
target returns is high.
In the case where there is good return of targets and yet the PM plume is lesser than at
installation then the PM itself may be faulty.
The common causes of performance reduction are:
(1) incorrect receiver tuning
(2) defective receiver crystal(s)
(3) obscured antenna window
(4) ageing T/R cell (active types of cell)
(5) magnetron ageing
(6) water in waveguide
(7) damaged waveguide, loose choke joints - leaking.

Display

Relative motion display (unstabilized)
Own-ships heading, indicated by the heading marker is usually adjusted to point at 000 on a
bearing scale surrounding the indicator.
102

Bearings of target echoes can be measured by means of an electronic bearing cursor which is
effectively a radial line passing through the scan origin and reaching the edge of the screen.
Since the top of the PPI is generally arranged to display the heading mark, it represents 000
relative and the resultant displayed information is known as ships head up (SHU)
presentation.
It is also known as an unstabilized display since no compass bearing information is fed into the
display.
A relative motion display will show all targets moving in their correct scaled speeds and
directions in a manner similar to that, which would be seen by an observer, situated at the
antenna site.

103

Stabilized display
This type of presentation is also known as north up display.
In this the top of the screen at 000 degrees is represented as true north, achieved by feeding the
ships heading from the gyrocompass to the display.
As own-ship changes course the displayed heading mark swings to the new course whilst other
targets are shown on their correct scaled relative courses referred to the top of the indicator.

104

In this case if the own ship has a course of 180 then the heading line of own-ship would point
constantly to the bottom of the PPI.
For this reason RADARs today also provide a facility for course up display; in this case if own
ship had a heading of 180, the ships head would indicate 180 but the heading marker would be
on top.
Sea Stabilized:
Whenever ARPA is used in the True track mode, data relating to own vessels motion is fed in
from the speed log and from the gyro/magnetic compass.
Assuming that the speed log is feeding in the vessels speed through the water and is not on the
bottom lock mode, then the displayed true track of the vessel would be sea stabilized.
Vectors would therefore indicate the true track through the water of other vessels as well and
thus would also the visual aspects of the other vessels, irrespective of any tide/current
experienced.
IT IS THEREFORE VERY IMPORTANT THAT WHEN ARPA IS USED IN THE TRUE
TRACK ANTI COLLISION MODE, THAT IT IS ONLY USED IN THE SEA STABILIZED
MODE.
The above is the reason that in spite of a vessel being equipped with a GPS receiver, it is
compelled by regulation to carry an operational speed log. The ARPA has to have a feed from
the speed log.
Ground Stabilized:
Coastline drift may be prevented by feeding in the set and drift due to the current/tide, or by
having the feed come in from the speed log working on bottom lock condition. Or also by
incorporating the CMG obtained from the GPS.
Another way is to have the facility of echo reference lock on to a stationary target (selection of
the same requires utmost care, and is not recommended for the novice).
Under the above the display becomes ground stabilized. The displayed vector will then indicate
the targets true tracks. Of course due to the potentially misleading effect of the data relating to
the tracked vessels aspect, this mode should not be used when assessing collision risk or
planning avoidance strategy.
Radar Plotting
There are advantages of using either a True or a Relative motion display. Relative motion
displays and subsequent plotting gives an immediate indication of which ships are on a collision
course.
On the other hand, whether a target is stationary or moving can be usually distinguished more
readily with a true motion display.
Generally any one of the displays may be used, however with the inherent advantage for
collision avoidance, relative motion maybe more suitable for open sea condition for collision
avoidance.
105

Now regarding whether to use Ground stabilization or not.
Well ground stabilization display may and will give a misleading idea about a target/ship in
coastal areas, involving tidal currents.
GPS speed in general gives ground speed, and there lies the necessity of having a speed log,
which can give input to the Radar of the set and drift experienced by own vessel.
In the following example the same is highlighted:

The above is a case of an own vessel observing another target in an area where the current is a
factor. If ground stabilization is used, then the own vessel course is taken by the ARPA as 000
deg. And speed of 12k, however due to the current the actual vector of own vessel is Co. 018
deg. and spd. 12.5k.
Thus unless sea stabilisation is used, the plot will give a totally erroneous result and will seem
that the vessels are passing clear when actually they would be colliding.
This neccesitates the use of a speed log as is mandatory under SOLAS
True motion display
Own-ship and targets can be displayed moving with true motion on the PPI, that is having
corrected scaled velocities by inclusion of a true motion unit to modify the presentation of target
and ranging information on the screen.
If the PPI scan origin is itself moved at own-ships scaled velocity, all other moving targets will
be displayed in real time moving at their scaled velocities.
106

Fixed targets do not appear to move if ones own course and speed are relative to ground. The
arrangement provides a display which is chart-like in presentation and from which plotting
information is quickly obtained, usually in conjunction with a reflection plotter.
A compass stabilized display is converted relatively simply into true-motion mode by use of a set
of orthogonal fixed deflection coils. In some types of display these may also serve as the sweep
deflection coils.

Errors

Basic radar parameters
Frequency bands
Marine radar operating frequencies are allocated within the following bands of frequencies:
The S band from 2000 to 4000 MHz
The X band from 8000 to 12500 MHz
These correspond to a range of wavelengths of:
S band 7.5 cm to 15 cm 10 cm Radar
X band 2.4 cm to 3.75 cm. 3 cm Radar
The International Telecommunications Union allocates the two bands.
For example, a vessel might transmit on:
9445 35 MHz in the X band and
3050 10 MHz in the S band.
Use of these high frequencies has an added advantage of reducing the size and thus weight of the
antennas.
107

Three-centimetre radar is used for relatively high-bearing definition and good echo return.
In the atmosphere gas molecules absorb some energy, but three-centimetre waves can experience
severe attenuation and reflection in rain and dense fog.
Wavelengths of ten centimetres are less affected by rain, fog and snow and also permit returns from
large targets beyond the normal radar horizon of the shorter wavelength.
Choice of PRF is influenced by several design factors. Successive pulses must be separated by a period of
time which permits the echo from a transmitted pulse to return and be displayed before the onset of
the next transmitter pulse.
Therefore, the PRP must have a length that is equal to twice the one-way trip time from antenna to
target.
Practically the PRP is greater than the calculated minimum.
Values are between about 500 PPS to 4000 PPS and a radar will have two or three PRFs giving a choice
of PRP to suit the ranging conditions.
Additionally, the pulse length will be switched to suit those conditions.
The following values of pulse length and PRFs are automatically selected when the radar range is
changed. Also the facility exists for manually changing the pulse length from short to long and vice versa.
Selecting a longer pulse instead of a shorter one will always downgrade range resolution.
Radar 1
Range 1.5 3 6 12 24 60
nm
Pulse
length (s) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
PRF 3200 3200 3200 3200 800 800 800 800
108

Radar 2
Range 1
1/2
3 6 12 24 48 64
nm
Pulse
length (s) 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0
PRF 3600 3600 3600 1800 1800 900 900 900
Relating PRF and pulse length:
Range PRF pulse length PRF pulse length
(N.M.) (Short) (Long)
0.25 2000 0.05 2000 0.05 only 1 PRF 1 pulse length
0.5 2000 0.05 1000 0.25 2 PRF 2 pulse length
0.75 2000 0.05 1000 0.25 2 PRF 2 pulse length
1.5 2000 0.05 1000 0.25 2 PRF 2 pulse length
3.0 1000 0.25 500 1.0 2 PRF 2 pulse length
6.0 1000 0.25 500 1.0 2 PRF 2 pulse length
12 1000 0.25 500 1.0 2 PRF 2 pulse length
24 500 1.0 500 1.0 only 1 PRF 1 pulse length
48 500 1.0 500 1.0 only 1 PRF 1 pulse length
Comparison between X- band and S- band:
Target Response: For a target of a given size, the response at X band is greater than at S band.
Bearing discrimination: For a given aerial width the horizontal beamwidth effect in an S band system
will be approx. 3.3 times that of an X band system.
Vertical Beam structure: The vertical lobe pattern produced by an S band aerial is about 3.3
times as coarse as that from an X band aerial located at the same heights.
Radar Horizon: The radar horizon with S band is slightly more distant than with X band.
Sea clutter response: The unwanted response from sea waves is less at S band than at X band, thus
the probability of targets being masked due to saturation is less.
Precipitation response: The probability of detection of targets, which lie within an area of precipitation,
is higher with S band transmission than with X band transmission.
Attenuation in precipitation: In any given set of precipitation conditions, S band transmissions will
suffer less attenuation than those at X band.
Selection of PRF and pulselength and their relationship with Range scale.
109

For any range scale the period between two pulses should be at least as long as the time base for that
range scale. This because the trace spot should be able to go up to the edge of the screen and then
return to the centre thereby tracing a single echo line.
If however the time between the two pulses (pulse repetition period or p.r.p.) is equal to the time base
then the problem would be to resolve any echoes, generated by the first pulse but outside the range
scale in use arriving in the time base of the second pulse (second trace echoes).
Therefore a time delay (receiver rest time) must be introduced between the completion of one time
base and the commencement of the second time base so that the above confusion is reduced as much
as possible.
Thus the combined length of the time base and the period of rest of the receiver must be long enough
so that echoes due to any given pulse are all returned before the transmission of the second pulse.
The above thus defines the minimum acceptable pulse repetition period (p.r.p.) and thus the maximum
PRF for any given range scale.
The next criteria is to assess how far a pulse would go, since that would determine the time duration
delay that we have to allow for the echo to come back.
The range of this EM wave is among others dependent on the transmitted pulse length. Longer the pulse
length the more distant the pulse would travel and thus the echo from the furthest point would take an
appreciable time.
This would entail a longer pulse repletion period and consequently a lower PRF.
Thus we see that long pulses are used on the longer-range scales and are associated with low PRF. The
short pulses are used on the shorter-range scales and are associated with high PRF.
It should be remembered that selection of a short pulse would reduce the probability of detection of
any one return. However this is compensated with the fact that when on short pulse mode, the PRF is
higher so more shots are being fired at the target.
The Radar Horizon:
Although the Radar transmitter emits EM waves and that these waves are supposed to move in straight
lines (line of sight), it does so happen that the radar waves are bent slightly downward due to the
atmospheric conditions.
Therefore the radar horizon is given by the equation:
Distance in NM = 2.21 x square root of Height of Own antenna in metres
To get a return from a target the target is supposed to be above the sea level, and then the detectable
range using the above equation would be as follows:
Distance in NM = 2.21 x square root of Height of Own antenna in metres + 2.21 x square root of Height
of target in metres
Thus if we take that a target is of a height of 1 m above the sea, and that our antenna is placed at a
height of 25 m above the sea, then from the above it follows:
Detectable range of target = (2.21 01) + (2.21 25)
= (2.21 x 1) + (2.21 x 5)
= 2.21 + 11.05
110

= 13.26 NM

Of course the above is purely theoretical since the echo to be received by the radar would depend on a
number of causes:
Standard atmospheric conditions
Pulses are powerful enough
The target has a good reflector surface and would return the echoes
The water vapour/ rain in the atmosphere does not attenuate the pulse on its journey to and from the
target.

When we talk of standard atmospheric conditions, it is taken to be as follows:
Pressure: 1013mb and decreasing at 36mb/1000ft height
Temperature: 15C decreasing at 2C/1000ft height
Relative humidity: 60%
The above conditions give a refractive index (RI) of 1.00325 decreasing at 0.00013 / 1000ft of height.
111

Second Trace Echoes
If the PRF is too high then a target echo may be displayed on the time base of the next pulse.

1 s = 300 metres
or 1 nm = 12.35 s as displayed in the CRT

In the above, pulse 1 has enough energy to return a echo from targets A and B.
The selected maximum range is 48 nm, producing a timebase sweep of 12.35 x 48 = 595.0 s.
Target A, returns an echo 446.0 s after timebase waveform initialization, indicating that the target lies
at 36 nm range on the first transmission trace.
112

A PRF of 1500 pps is chosen giving a PRP of 666 s.
1 second = 1500 pulses
1000,000 s = 1500 pulses
PRP = 1000,000 / 1500
PRP = 666.67 s
Target B returns its echo due to pulse 1 after 800 s and is due to the target lying at range 64 nm. The
echo due to target B therefore returns 134 s after the start of the timebase trace due to pulse 2.
The paint due to echo B then appears on timebase trace 2, producing an ambiguous echo at an apparent
range of 11 nm. All unambiguous echoes will, of course, be displayed at normal ranges.
On board ships it may be possible for second trace echoes to be displayed only when the pulse
transmitted has sufficient energy to cause a echo to return from a large target area such as a land mass
beyond the visible horizon but within the radar horizon.
Or sometimes due to a phenomenon known as super refraction.
A displayed coastal outline may be shown near the central area of the CRT screen, and the navigator
should be suspicious of such unexpected targets and aware of the possibility of super refraction in the
atmosphere.
Changing PRF, done by just changing to a lower range can eliminate second trace echoes.
Since Radars have at least two PRFs, these second trace echoes thus pose no hazard if understood by
the navigator.
113

Minimum detectable range
RF radiation for 1.0 s pulse duration will occupy a length in air of 300m.
During the transmission of the 1 s pulse the receiver is switched off by T/R cell.
The forward edge of this pulse is at A and the after edge is at B. As soon as the transmission stops the
after edge B, of the pulse has just left the antenna. The T/R cell switches on the Receiver circuit.

However, during that 1.0 s of transmission there may be a target, at for example 100m range,
returning an echo.
Since the pulse length is 1 s (=300m), therefore the forward edge of the transmitted pulse traveled
100m to the target and the echo so generated again traveled 100m back to the scanner, total distance
traveled 200m. This is less than the pulse length of 300m (1 s), so the T/R cell does not open the
receiver circuit for the echo to be processed and displayed.
But if the target is at a distance of 150m, and the forward edge of the pulse hits it, and there is an echo
then this echo will be received. This will be so, because now the forward edge of the pulse traveled
150m, generated an echo of the target which traveled another 150m back to the scanner, a total of
300m (1 s).
114

Thus, 150m is the minimum range at which a target is detectable and the value of that minimum range
depends on the pulse length.
In reality however the Radar manual states more distance (nearly double).
If a Radar has a minimum pulse length of 0.05 s for the lower ranges then the minimum theoretical
range is given by 0.05 x 300/2 = 7.5m.
As the Radar set becomes old the efficiency of the T/R cell goes down and the minimum detectable
range increases from that stated in the manual.
Radars operating under short pulse will have a better minimum detectable range.
Range discrimination
Range discrimination means the ability of a radar to detect two or more targets lying close together on
the same bearing and at differing ranges and display those targets as separate echoes.
In the following figure there are two targets A and B, each on the same bearing and separated by 150m
range. The transmitted pulse length is 1.0.

In this case also it is nearly the same as the minimum detection range.
115

If the pulse length is more then the minimum distance between two targets for each to be shown
separately, the pulse length has to be less than the minimum range discrimination stated.
It is seen that range discrimination will be degraded as pulse length increases.
In a set having three pulse lengths of 0.06 Rs, 0.5 Rs and 1.0 Rs, the range discrimination cannot be
better than 9m, 75m and 150m respectively.
Range Discrimination:
Range discrimination means the ability of the radar to differentiate between two targets at the same
bearing but separated by a minimum distance.
The discrimination is usually expressed in metres, which must separate the two targets as mentioned
above so that they may be observed separately.
IMO performance standard for radar specifies condition for two targets, on the same bearing but
separated by 50 metres in range.
116

The specification states that on a range of 2 NM or less be capable of displaying the echoes of the two
targets as separate targets when the two lie at a range of between 50% and 100% of the range scale in
use.
In general half the pulse length can be said to be theoretically the distance between the two targets
required to paint them separately. However another factor comes into play is the spot size of the paint.
A sheet of metal of unit width will also send in an echo and that will be painted on the screen with a
certain predetermined dimension. This dimension will again change with the range scale in use.
To understand this note that a point of 0.5mm of the screen will be of different dimensions (in NM)
depending on the range scale in use.
The range of each spot is a function of the range scale in use as well as the spot diameter per radius.
Thus:
Number of Spot Diameter per screen radius (250mm diameter screen) = Radius of the screen (125) /
each spot diameter
Thus the range as represented by each spot would then be found using the range scale used.
Range = Range scale in metres / spot diameters per radius
Thus as an example for a Radar screen of 250 mm and with a spot diameter of 0.5mm and at ranges of
12 NM and at 48 NM the spot would represent as follows:
Number of spot diameters per screen radius = 125 / 0.5 = 250
Range = (12 x 1852) / 250 = 88.9 metres 12 NM
Range = (48 x 1852) / 250 = 355.6 metres 48 NM
Now noting the above we see that the minimum separation between the targets would not be exactly
half the pulse length but this spot radius factor as well. However the spot radius would be different for
different makes of radar.
117

Thus to some practical value to range discrimination:
Range discrimination = Range (spot) + Range (pulse)
If we take our above example at 48 NM and use a pulse length of 1s, then
Range discrimination = 355.6 + 150 = 505.6 metres.
118

Bearing discrimination:
Bearing discrimination means that ability of the radar to differentiate between two targets on the same
range and separated by a minimum angular distance.

Shows two targets X and Y lying at range R metres.
This shows the antenna beam in just one direction, assuming that the antenna is not rotating. It is seen
that when the angle () subtended by the two targets at the antenna is less than the
horizontal beamwidth (), the two targets will be hit simultaneously by the pulse and they will appear as
one displayed target.
This is generally expressed in metres as that distance by which two targets lying on the
same range are painted separately.
The IMO performance standard sets the specification that when two targets on the same range of
between 50% and 100% of the 1.5 NM or 2 NM range scales, the two targets should be able to be
displayed separately by not more than 2.5 in azimuth (bearing).
Thus to comply with the above the trailing edge (horizontal) of the rotating beam must leave one target
before the leading edge of the rotating beam strikes the second target.
Theoretically the Horizontal Beam Width (HBW) would be the determining factor, such that the bearing
discrimination would be at least one HBW.
However again due to the spot diameter of the screen resolution, in practice the minimum distance is
more.
Also this discrimination would be different at different ranges since though the HBW angle would
subtend the same angle the arc in NM would be different.
Let us look at an example:
Screen diameter: 250 mm, spot size: 0.5 mm, HBW: 1.5, Range scale in use: 12 NM, Target at range of:
10 NM
Length of the arc at 10 NM:
= range x HBW in radians
119

= (10 x 1852) x 1.5 x ( / 180) metres
= 485.05 metres
Now the arc represented by one spot diameter is given by:
= range scale in metres / spot diameters per radius
= 12 x (1852 / 250)
= 88.9 metres
Thus Bearing discrimination = 485 + 89 = 574 metres
For the same example but the targets lying at a range of 1 NM would be:
Length of arc = 48.5 metres
Arc by spot diameter = 88.9 metres
Thus Bearing discrimination = 48.5 + 89 = 138.5 metres
120

Target glint
Statistics show that of the 25 pulses reaching the target approximately 10-15
detectable pulses may return.
Successive pulse transmissions will, however, build up a bright area of paint on the display, which
appears at the range of the centre of echo returns.
Due to rolling and pitching of own/target vessel the aspect of the target may change, this will change
the echo signals polarization as well as the strength.
The above will lead to the target appearing in one scan and not appearing in some scans. This is known
as target glint. Further this also leads to Lost Target when the target is acquired by the ARPA.
Summing up:
In order to produce a good signal return from a distant target the energy in the transmitted pulse should
be high. For a given peak power this suggests long pulse duration.
However, lengthening the pulse will degrade range discrimination.
Having a short pulse length ensures good minimum detectable range.
At longer displayed ranges, where range discrimination is not so critical, the pulse energy is increased by
choosing a longer transmitted pulse.
The PRF and the pulse length determine the average transmitter power for a given peak output
power. Also, the PRF determines the maximum displayed range and is preferably chosen so that second
trace effect is avoided.
Evidently reducing the antenna speed for a given PRF will provide more paints per target; it is not
feasible to increase antenna horizontal beamwidth since this would reduce antenna gain and degrade
bearing discrimination.
The PRF and pulse widths are generally made variable being switched to a desired value when the
operator of the equipment changes the displayed range.
121

Super and sub-refraction
The atmosphere is not of uniform density throughout its height above the earth. Also the density of the
atmosphere changes during the day as well as during summer and winter.
Early morning the sun appears red while rising due to the above fact that the light from the sun has
under gone refraction. This phenomenon of bending of light rays is also applicable to other electro-
magnetic waves including radar beams.
Refraction causes the radar horizon to appear at a distance greater than if the radar waves travelled in
a straight line.
Radar waves are affected by above discrepancy in the density and also due to the amount of water
vapour in the atmosphere.
Extended ranges are caused by propagation through a nonstandard atmosphere and are generally
caused by a ducting phenomenon. Microwaves do propagate beyond the normal horizon due to earth
diffraction but this is a consistent propagation factor for which an allowance is made in the application
of the earth radius factor.
Super Refraction:
This occurs when the rate of decrease in refractive index with height is greater than under standard
conditions.
When super refraction occurs the RADARs beam tends to be bent down slightly more and so targets
may be detected at greater ranges.
122

Conditions which are favourable would be:
A decrease in relative humidity with height.
Temperature falling more slowly than standard or even increasing with height.
These conditions are generally found in very good weather/ visibility conditions. Especially in conditions
of high pressure weather systems.
Thus we would have a cool sea and a hot dry wind blowing, reducing the relative humidity and
inverting the temperature inversion from standard conditions.
Atmospheric ducts are caused by rapid decrease of refractive index with altitude which can itself occur
due to an increase in temperature and/or a decrease in humidity.
The refractive Index changes at a rate of about 4 times the standard rate.
It is the latter humidity gradients, which are recorded as producing the most pronounced changes in
refractive index. Enhanced propagation can occur by ducting if the radar antenna or the target is near
the water, which places the radar antenna and the target within the duct.
When evaporation occurs from the sea into a still atmosphere a layer of moist air is produced, extending
perhaps 50 to 100 feet and having a vapour content which decreases rapidly with height. The condition
causes partial trapping of radar energy and is further accentuated if there exists at the same time a
temperature inversion, i.e. temperature reduces less rapidly with increase of height.
Such conditions can cause radar energy to reach and be returned from targets many times the normal
radar horizon and is known as super-refraction.
Echo returns are generally from targets having a large radar reflecting area such as high
landmasses. Due to their extended detection range such echoes return on the next consecutive PPI
trace causing second trace effect. In general warm dry air settling over a relatively cold sea produces
conditions ideal for super-refraction.

Sub-refraction
This would occur when the refractive index of the atmosphere decreases less rapidly with height than
under standard conditions.
Occurs where there is a very rapid reduction of temperature with height and/or increase in humidity
with height.
These conditions can arise when a very cold air layer settles over a relatively warmer sea.
For conditions to arise formation of a cold front in northern latitudes is often a cause. So this condition
would arise when there would a requireent for better radar capabilities and visibility is poor (cold front).
The phenomenon of inferior mirage is almost the same, when the air of differing densities refracts the
visible light.
Generally experienced in or toward the Polar Regions.
Radar ranges are reduced to visual eye sight distances or in some cases are reduced below this distance
also, wherein sometimes targets being visible to the eye and the Radar has no echo on the display.
Large masses of ice drifting in relatively warm sea currents can produce identical conditions for
occurrence of sub-refraction.
123

Squint angle
Slight non-uniformitys in emission along the slotted wave-guide introduce a shifting of the main beam
axis so that it is not truly perpendicular to the length of the antenna. The small angle so produced in the
horizontal plane is called the squint angle.
Magnetrons are manufactured tuned to a nominal frequency within the radar band. Slight changes in
the transmission frequency which can, for example, occur when a magnetron is replaced, can alter the
squint angle of a slotted waveguide antenna.
124

Speed error
Given that log input may contain some speed error the true motion unit must operate on that input to
produce a scaled motion of the trace origin having an error not exceeding 5 per cent or 0.25 knot,
whichever is greater.
In the case of a speed of 20 knots the maximum error permitted becomes one knot which
proportionately diminishes with reduced speed.
In digital form the speed is allocated to a single byte (eight binary digits). This gives a resolution of
1/256 or, at 20 knots, 0.078 knots error.

Course error; drift error
For type-tested systems, the course error generated by the true motion unit (TMU) circuitry must not
exceed 3 degrees.
A typical analogue true-motion unit specification will quite likely quote zero speed drift in terms of the
observed scan origin motion when there is zero speed input.
As an example, it might be that drift will occur over not more than 5 per cent of one quarter of the tube
diameter during a 30-minute period or 0.25 knots, whichever is the greater.
For a 406-mm display this amounts to 5.0 mm.
On the 24-nm range the drift becomes equivalent to 1.2 knots, a drift of 0.6 nm in 30 minutes.
On the 1/4nm range the same distance represents 0.00625 nm or 0.0125 knots.
If the 0.25-knot tolerance is applied to this shorter range the drift could be as great as one half
the radius in one half-hour period.
Drift can be minimized by careful adjustment of parameters, but over a long period the integrator will
drift to saturation. On a true motion PPI the effect is to introduce apparent scan origin motion where
none should exist. Since the integrator is usually reset at frequent intervals on short ranges, this action
discharges the capacitor to produce zero integrator output voltage. The problem is not then
crucial. Over longer tracking periods a track error will result due to drift which, being on the longer
ranges, is seen from the previous example not to be critical for the observed errors.
Shadow sectors and blind sectors
Any part of the ships structure, which forms an obstruction to the main beam of the radar antenna, can
cause a shadow sector or shadow zone on the PPI.
However it should not be forgotten, particularly in larger vessels that extended shadow sectors exist in
the vertical plane also.
125

Typically there is a core of at the shadow sector within which there exists a total blind sector.

False echoes (due to ship obstruction)

False echoes can appear on the display due to reflection of echo energy from an obstruction on the ship,
which is causing a shadow sector.
Usually such false echoes are found mainly in the shadow sector and appear at virtually the same range
as the true target echo. They may also appear at slightly reduced brilliance in radar sets, which display
raw video signals.
Generally the echoes are produced by fairly large echoing areas at close range; a change in course of
own-ship causing the false echo to disappear or a new false echo from a different target to appear in the
blind sector.
False echoes between own-ship and target
126

Such echoes are produced due to the transmitted energy bouncing between a target at close range and
own-ship.
The effect is to produce from one transmitted pulse a series of echoes which appear on the display
equally spaced at multiples of the target range and extending beyond the true target echo with
gradually diminishing paint.
False echoes appear on the same bearing as the true echo and are usually easily due to their regular
pattern and distinctive characteristic. As own-ship changes attitude relative to these targets the echoes
tend to change or disappear.

Sidelobe echoes
Slotted waveguide antennas produce very low output power in the sidelobes compared to the main
lobe. For targets, which are close to own-ship, however, the energy can be transmitted and received
not only via the main lobe but also via the sidelobes.
The effect is to severely downgrade bearing discrimination of adjacent targets and to produce on the
display bright arcs of paint at the target range and close to the scan origin.
Sidelobe echoes diminish rapidly with range.
127

Antenna

Antenna beamwidth and gain
Ships are designed specifically to detect targets, which are lying virtually in the horizontal
plane. The antenna therefore propagates in a fan-shaped beam, narrow in the horizontal plane
and relatively wide in the vertical plane.
Since the antenna has direction in a particular direction, it is said to have a power gain in that
direction. Antenna gain is an important radar parameter and power gain in particular is
considered in the radar equation.
Beamwidth is another of the important criteria since it specifies boundaries within the antenna
radiation pattern, which are considered to be the limit of useful radiation (or reception).

Above shows the concept of beamwidth. This shows that because the beam shape of a radar
antenna is not conical with the cone apex at the antenna, there exist two
important beamwidth figures.
One is in the horizontal plane, known as the horizontal beamwidth (HBW) and the other is in the
vertical plane, being known as the vertical beamwidth (VBW).
The HBW tends to assume more importance than the VBW because of its effect on the radars
bearing discrimination.
The VBW however is large due to the fact that the target has to be hit by the beam even in a
rough sea condition, when the ship is rolling. And also minimize unwanted echoes from the
surface of the sea whilst optimizing the power gain characteristics of the antenna.
In the above it is seen a target which is struck by a portion of the Radar beam. The bold line
shows the useful main lobe of the radiation. Power measured at A, B, C and D is one-half the
measured power at the main lobe axis along which maximum radiated power acts. These (and
other points lying on the ellipse ABCD), are known as the half-power points within the beam.
Beamwidth defined; the decibel; minor lobes

128

The horizontal or vertical beamwidth is then conveniently defined as the angle subtended by the
selected half-power points at the antenna. The half-power points are also known as the minus
three decibel points or three decibels down points, written -3dB and meaning 3 decibels lower
than the maximum power measured at the main lobe axis at range R.
Vertical beamwidth (VBW) is generally between 22-25 degrees and
horizontal beamwidth (HBW) generally between 0.8-1.5 degrees.
Note that the main transmitted lobe or major lobe does not contain all the transmitted power.
Minor radiation lobes (side lobes) also exist, but the powers in those lobes are greatly reduced.
Such a power reduction in normal circumstances causes no effect on echoes from a distant target.
However sidelobes do cause secondary echoes, particularly from targets at short ranges. Slotted
waveguide antennas minimize such lobes.
Relationships between HBW and VBW for slotted waveguide antennas are shown above. Also
shown is the relative sidelobe power level relative to the main lobe axis at 10 degrees from that
axis.
Antenna size HBW degrees VBW degrees Sidelobes 10 degrees

12 S band 1.85 22 -28 dB
12 X band 0.65 22 -30 dB
9 X band 0.85 22 -29 dB
Antenna aperture or effective area
Generally for a given wavelength, increasing the aperture will increase the power gain
and decrease the horizontal beamwidth.
Azimuth bearing transmitter and receiver
It is a small machine driven via a gear train from the antenna drive unit. The machine is the
electrical bearing transmitter.
The machines send to the display, the bearing information from the antenna to the display.
Antenna siting
The antenna should be placed in a position that avoids or minimizes obstacles presented by the
ships structure in the path of the radiated beam. Such obstacles produce shadow sectors and
blind areas, which can hide targets of navigational importance and give rise to false echoes
appearing on the PPI.
Antenna height above sea level is also of importance, since it has an effect on
the radar horizon; in principle, radar range improves with height. A practical limit is reached
when the incident angle of the vertical beam lobe extremities becomes sufficiently acute to return
strong echoes from the sea surface which increases sea clutter at the display and can obscure
targets at close range.
There is also a practical limitation placed on the amount length of the waveguide run.
129

Antenna height
The RF wave an effect known as diffraction by introducing slight differences in the velocity
components at different parts of the wavefront.
Diffraction causes the path of the wave to follow the earths curvature for a distance determined
by such factors as frequency, surface conductivity and atmospheric permittivity. The diffraction
effect is greater for lower propagation frequencies and ten-centimetre wavelengths will bend to
follow the earths surface for a greater distance than will three-centimetre wavelengths, other
factors being equal
Very small targets close to the ship which might otherwise be easily discriminated may not
adequately be irradiated by the main beam if the antenna height is too great; this and the
increased sea clutter return can cause such target return to be lost on the display.
Aerial Rotation Rate:
As per the IMO performance standards the antenna should rotate at a constant speed of not less
that 12 rpm in winds up to 100 knots.
Let us assume that an antenna rotates at a rate of 12 rpm
Thus it rotates at 12 rotations in 60 seconds.
Or we can say that it does 1 rotation in 5 seconds.
Now if we have a Horizontal Beam Width (HBW) of 2, then the time required to sweep through
this 2 of HBW would take:
From the above:
1 rotation in 5 seconds
: 360 in 5 seconds
: 2 in (5/360) x2
: 1/36
And from this we can derive that the time required to sweep through the HBW (or any angle)
would take:
T = HBW (or any angle) / 6 N where N is the rpm of the antenna, and T is the required time
period.
Also the number of pulses striking a target of negligible width would be (theoretically) given by:
S = PRF x T where S is the number of pulses and T is the time period.
Combining the two we have:
S = PRF x (HBW/6N)
So if we have a PRF of 1000pps and a HBW of 2 and a scanner rotation speed of 12 rpm
Then the number of pulses that will theoretically strike a point target would be:
S = 1000 x (2 / 6x12)
= 1000 x (1/36)
130

= 28 pulses nearly
However in general at strike rate of 10 pulses is supposed to be great in sending back satisfactory
number of echoes (some returning pulse would not be directed towards the scanner).
If this be so and if we assume that the HBW of a Radar set is at the limit of the IMO performance
standard of 2.5 and the PRF is at 1000 pps, then the antenna rotation speed will be - using the
above equation:
10 = 1000 x (2/6N)
Or N = 33.3 rpm
For the Heading Mark on a Radar, the IMO performance standard states that it should not be
more than 0.5 thick. The heading mark should be displayed with an error of not greater than +/-
1.
131

The Slotted Wave Guide Aerial:
From physics: If an alternating signal is applied across the mid length of a slot in a sheet of
conducting material, then this slot would act as a effective radiator of electro magnetic wave.
However this is provided that the frequency of the applied signal corresponds with the
wavelength that is twice the length of the slot.
This effect is utilized in the slotted wave guide antenna where a number of vertical slots are cut
on one side of the wave-guide itself.
The slots interrupt the pattern of the alternating current flow along the wall of the wave-guide
and thus a signal is effectively applied across the centre of each slot.
The slots are cut at equal interval such that the signals all emit out in the same phase. The slotted
wave-guide antenna thus constitutes a large number of radiators having a uniform phase
distribution across a plane aperture.

This produces a pattern as follows:
Since the wave guide is fed with the alternating signal from one end the horizontal beam width
pattern will be rotated by a small amount away from the feed end of the guide, such that the axis
of the main lobe will make a horizontal angle of about 3 to 4 with the normal of the slot
aperture.
This angle is frequency dependent and is known as the angle of squint.
The slotted wave guide antenna is preferred over other types of antenna because of the ability to
produce direct emission and to offer higher aerial gain by reducing the power radiated in the side
lobes.

Plotting

Radar plotting
With the advent of ARPA, the necessity of a paper plot has reduced, however the plot
is mandatory and it also helps if navigators use this to keep a counter check on the
performance of the ARPA results after a certain interval of time.
132

The paper plot is started with plotting sheets, but the non-availability should not be a
deterrent to the plot.
The principle of a paper plot is the vectors and the direction of the vectors.
OA starting from o and ending in A represents the approach line of two vessels (one of them
being the own vessel)
First position is always O and the last position is A.
Once the line OA has been drawn, the own vessels course and speed are used to draw the
direction and length from the point O.
This line OW (only to be used once) fixes the position of the point W, this is the position of
reference for all future vectors. The moment w is fixed the line OW is to be called for all future
purposes as WO.
The subsequent line WA gives the course direction and the speed of the vessel.
The plot intervals are chosen as 3m, 6m or 12m. Since these are decimals of an hour and once
one vector OA is done in this time frame all vectors are to be calculated in the same time frame.
The length of the line WA is to be taken and converted to distance traveled in the time interval
and thus the speed of the target is found.
133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

Forming the Triangle for use in case of altering COURSE of own vessel. Altering
COURSE to pass a vessel at a predetermined distance
143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

Forming the Triangle for use in case of altering SPEED of own vessel. Altering SPEED to
pass a vessel at a predetermined distance
163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

Alteration of course by other vessel after a certain time interval of the original
Plot

179

180

ARPA

Introduction

The IMO Performance Standard for an ARPA requires that it should . . . reduce the workload of
observers by enabling them to automatically obtain information so that they can perform as well with
multiple targets as they can by manually plotting a single target.
It also states:
The display may be a separate or integral part of the ships radar. However, the ARPA display should
include all the data required to be provided by a radar display in accordance with the performance
standards for navigational radar equipment.
Integral ARPAs
181

In the modern integral ARPA a computer, usually referred to as the processor, is incorporated in the
radar/ ARPA system so that the ARPA data etc. can be displayed on the same screen as the conventional
radar data.
When a ship required to be fitted with an ARPA is at sea and a radar watch is being kept on the ARPA,
the installation shall be under the control of a person qualified in the operational use of ARPA, who may
be assisted by unqualified personnel.
Rate aiding
When the target is first acquired, a large gate is necessary since there is uncertainty as to the direction
in which the target will move.
The radius of the gate is really a measure of confidence in the tracking.
The smaller this value becomes, the more precise the prediction will be.
The advantages of a reduced tracking gate are:
A lower likelihood of target swop
An improved ability to track targets through rain and sea clutter.
An ability to continue tracking, even when target response is intermittent.
One problem which can arise with reduced gate size is that if a target manoeuvres and, as a result, is not
found by the computer in the predicted position, the computer may continue to track and look in the
predicted direction and end up by losing the target altogether.
To avoid this possibility, as soon as the target is missed, the gate size is increased. If the target is still
detectable and subsequently found, the tracking will resume and a new track will gradually stabilise.
If, after six fruitless scans, the target is still not found then an alarm is activated and a flashing marker is
displayed at the targets last observed position.
The analysis of tracks and the display of data
In either case, if the target is acquired manually or automatically, the ARPA should present, in a period
of not more than 1 minute, an indication of the targets motion trend and display, within 3 minutes, the
targets predicted motion in accordance with the Performance Standard.
Display of target data as specified above are in two levels of accuracy:
A lower level relating to the targets motion trend, which is an early indication of the targets relative
motion.
A higher level relating to the targets predicted motion; this means the best possible estimate of the
targets relative and true motion data.
182

General tracker philosophy
Targets within the filtered area of the memory are selected for tracking when, either manually or
automatically, a gate is placed over their responses. As the aerial sweeps past a ship-target, it will
register a number of strikes on successive timebase and it may be that such a target activates more than
one successive radial range cell.
In the case of picture storage these digitised responses will aggregate in the memory to generate on the
display an echo having the outline of the distinctive echo paint. Clearly it is neither necessary nor
desirable for the computer to track each individual element present in the resolution cell.
If the target has been acquired, and is being successfully tracked, a tracking window will be centred on
that particular memory location within the hit matrix, which corresponds with the targets range and
bearing. The co-ordinates of the window can be extracted and stored in a further area of the tracker
memory. This area is sometimes referred to as the track file and there will have to be a separate track
file for each tracked target. Thus, rotation by rotation, as the gate moves in steps following the targets
position through the hit matrix, sequential positions of each tracked target can be stored in the
appropriate track file.
The processor (which is that part of the computer, which manipulates the data and carries out the
mathematical operations) must operate on the recorded positions to calculate the most probable track
of the target. It is difficult to carry out calculations based on positions which are expressed in terms of
range and bearing because the rates at which the bearing and range change are not constant for a
target on a straight track. Further, the spatial resolution varies with range (i.e. it is geometrical). For
these reasons it is usual to convert the target positions into Cartesian co-ordinates of North and East.
The effect of inherent errors is that, even for a target on a steady track, the plotted positions do not
form a perfectly straight line but are scattered about the correct track; the observer has to attempt to
draw the line that is the best fit. Exactly the same effect occurs with automatic plotting and it is further
exacerbated by quantizing errors introduced by the digital storage.
Since the data must eventually be displayed as a stable straight-line vector, the processor must calculate
a length and direction, which represents the best fit to the scattered observations.
When a target is first acquired, the computer will commence storing positions, obtaining updated co-
ordinates each time the aerial sweeps across the target.
These positions will have an inherent scatter and initially the mean line will be very sensitive to plots,
which fall some distance from it. However, as the plotting duration increases and more plots are
obtained, the mean line willstabilise and accuracy will improve.
During the first minute of tracking the target will normally display only a symbol to indicate that it is
being tracked.
In most systems the vector will be suppressed until sufficient observations have been obtained to
produce the indication of the targets motion trend to the level of accuracy required b the Performance
Standard.
Some systems are designed to display vectors within a few seconds of acquisition. This should not be
seen as a sign of instant accuracy.
Accuracy demands a number of successive observations and until the one-minute interval has elapsed
there is no requirement to meet the Performance Standard accuracy.
183

Any data derived directly or indirectly from these very early indications could be highly misleading. In
general, where such early display takes place, a study of the instability of the vector should convince the
user that it is based on insufficient observations.
After one minute the tracker will have smoothed about 12-20 observations and must then produce data
to the lower of the two accuracy levels set out in the Performance Standard. The tracking period is
allowed to build up to three minutes, at which stage the processor will be able to smooth some 36-60
observations and must then reach the higher accuracy level.
If a target response is not detected in the location forecast by the rate aiding, one possible explanation
is that the target has manoeuvred. The tracking gate will be opened out and if the target is detected,
tracking will continue. If the departure from the three-minute track is not significant, the processor will
conclude that the departure was due to scatter and will continue to smooth the track over a period of
three minutes. On the other hand, if the departure is significant, the processor will treat the situation as
a target manoeuvre and will reduce the smoothing period to one minute. This reduction in smoothing
period is analogous to the situation in which an observer decides that a target has manoeuvred and
therefore discards a previous OA W triangle and starts a new plot.
If steady state conditions resume, low-level accuracy must be obtained within one minute and then the
tracking period can again be allowed to build up to 3 minutes, allowing high level accuracy to be
regained.
In general trackers will either:
smooth and store the relative track of a target to produce directly the output relative-motion data and
hence calculate the true-motion data from the smoothed relative-track data and the instantaneous
input course and speed data, which is normally un smoothed to avoid any loss of sensitivity to man
oeuvres by the observing vessel; or
smooth and store the true track of a target to produce directly the smoothed true-motion data and
reconstitute the relative-motion data from the smoothed true-track data and the (normally un
smoothed) input course and speed data.
Note In order to smooth and store true tracks, the normally un smoothed course and speed data are
applied to the raw relative-motion data.
In the steady state situation, i.e. where neither tracked target nor the observing vessel man oeuvres and
no changes take place in any errors in the input data, both approaches will produce the same result. If a
change takes place, the two different approaches will produce differing results over the succeeding
smoothing period. To understand the differences it is necessary to consider in general terms how the
calculations are performed.
If the input data error is constant for the full smoothing period, the smoothed true track will of course
similarly be in error. The computer will then use the wrong input data and the consistently wrong true
track and as a result will arrive at the correct relative motion.
It is thus evident that, provided any error in the input course and speed data is consistent for the full
smoothing period, it will not affect the accuracy of the CPA/TCPA data.
However, if there is a fluctuating error, for example due to erratic log input, the relative vector will be
inaccurate and unstable.
184

While recognising the advantage of this approach in ensuring relative data stability
during manoeuvres by the observing vessel, many users are concerned about the ability of random input
errors to influence the CPA.
Tracking history
The ARPA should be able to display, on request, at least four equally time-spaced past positions of any
targets being tracked over a period of at least eight minutes.
This enables an observer to check whether a particular target has manoeuvred in the recent past,
possibly while the observer was temporarily away from the display on other bridge duties.
Not only is this knowledge useful in showing the observer what has happened but it may well help him
to form an opinion of what the target is likely to do in the future.
Relative history should be used with great caution.
Uneven tracks of targets or apparent instability of motion may be taken to indicate that tracking of that
target is less precise than it might be and the displayed data should be treated with caution.
Because of the variations in the way this facility can operate, great care should be taken when observing
history to ensure that one is certain of exactly what is being displayed. In particular, one must establish
whether true or relative history is being displayed and also which time spacing are in use.

Targets

The acquisition of targets
Acquisition may be, manual, in which case the operator, indicates to the computer which targets
are to be tracked, or may be automatic, when the computer is programmed to acquire targets
which enter specified boundaries.
When the acquire button is pressed, an area centred on the screen marker is defined within the
computer memory. This area is termed the tracking gate or tracking window. The gate is
made to appear automatically on some ARPA displays; on others, the operator may display it if
desired.
The acquisition specification
There should always be a facility to provide for manual acquisition and
cancellation. ARPAs with automatic acquisition should have a facility to suppress acquisition in
certain areas. On any range scale where acquisition is suppressed over a certain area, the area of
acquisition should be indicated on the display.
If automatic acquisition is provided, a description of the criteria of selection of targets for
tracking should be provided to the user.
The main problem with automatic acquisition is that the sensitivity of the detection circuitry, if
set too high, will acquire thermal noise and clutter, leading to false alarms, while if its sensitivity
is reduced, poor response targets can evade detection.
Guard rings
185

With this method of acquisition, the usual provision is for up to two rings (of predetermined
depth). The operator may position the rings.
When a target is automatically acquired in a guard zone/guard area, it is usual for an alarm to be
activated to attract the operators attention. The target activating the alarm will be indicated on
the screen.
In general, automatic acquisition has not been successful. There is a tendency to acquire sea
clutter, rain clutter, noise and interference, while disassociated elements of land echoes will very
quickly fill up the available tracking channels.
Land echoes can be excluded by careful setting of the zones, but spurious targets (e.g. clutter),
after having been acquired, are quickly lost and the lost target alarm can sound continually.
While it is argued that automatic acquisition will reduce the operators workload, in practice
there is a tendency for it to acquire spurious targets, also to over acquire and so clutter the
screen with unnecessary and unwanted vectors. This has led to auto-acquisition falling out of
favour.
It is rarely used in areas of high-density traffic, but can be useful on long ocean passages where
the number of targets is small and there is the danger of loss of concentration by the officer of
the watch due to boredom.
Guard zones should be regarded as an additional, rather than an alternative means of keeping a
proper lookout.
The tracking of targets
The tracking specification
In many cases it may be obvious that a target is being tracked by virtue of the fact that a vector
will indicate its predicted movement.
However, the need for tracked targets to be clearly indicated on the display is important because
in the early stages (up to about one minute) of tracking a fresh target, in most systems the vector
is suppressed because the available data is unlikely to be sufficiently accurate or stable.
Furthermore, in certain cases, even when the vector is present it may have zero length (e.g. the
true vector of a stationary target or the relative vector of a target on the same course and speed as
the observing vessel).
The number of targets to be tracked
The ARPA should be able to automatically track, process, simultaneously display and
continuously update the information on at least:
Twenty targets, if automatic acquisition is provided, whether automatically or manually
acquired.
Ten targets, if only manual acquisition is provided.
It has been found that an excess of vectors can produce ARPA clutter and be counter
productive.
It should be noted that a higher tracking capability is required by the Performance Standard
where the manufacturer has elected to provide automatic acquisition.
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Target loss
Provided the target is not subject to target swop, the ARPA should continue to track an acquired
target, which is clearly distinguishable on the display for 5 out of 10 consecutive scans.
The term scan tends to be used rather loosely in radar terminology. Sometimes it is used to
describe one line, as in the term interscan period; while on other occasions it refers to one aerial
rotation. In the above context it refers to the latter.)
It should be noted here that if, for some reason, a response from a tracked target is not received
on a particular scan, the ARPA must not immediately declare the target lost.
Also it is implied that some form of search for it must take place, e.g. by opening the tracking
gate.
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Target swop
Target swop is likely when two targets respond within the tracking gate at the same time. When
this happens, the tracker can become confused and the vector(s) may transfer to the wrong
target.
To minimize this problem, the gate should be made as small as possible, the movement of the
target should be predicted and the gate moved on at each scan as described under rate aiding.
The two requirements that target swop be minimised by the ARPA design and that tracking be
continued even if no response is received for a period of time are thus to some extent achieved
by the common solution of rate aiding.
For the observer, since the size of the gate is beyond his control, the only way left out to him is
to be prepared for a swop by monitoring visually as two targets close in. If this were left to the
ARPA, then in the advent of aswop, the observer would take the readings of a wrong target and
complacency can set in.
Vectors
The course and speed information generated by the ARPA for acquired targets should be
displayed in a vector or graphic form, which clearly indicates the targets predicted motion. In
this regard:
ARPA presenting predicted (extrapolated) information in vector form only should have the
option of true and relative vectors.
An ARPA which is capable of presenting target course and speed information in graphic form
should also, on request, provide the targets true and/or relative vector.
Vectors displayed should either be time adjustable or have a fixed time-scale.
A positive indication of the time-scale of the vector in use should be given.
Vectors must be capable of indicating the rate and direction of the targets relative motion
(relative vectors), or indicating the rate and direction of the targets proper motion (true vectors).
In all cases, the displayed vector length is time related.
The fixed physical length generally remains the same irrespective of the range scale, e.g. 3
minutes on the 6 n mile range scale, 6 minutes on the 12 n mile range scale, etc.
Note: True vectors can be selected to appear on a relative motion presentation and vice versa.
Relative vectors
The ARPA must track the target(s) for a period of time, after which a vector can be displayed.
Using the vector length control, the vectors can be extended to determine the CPA by
observation against the background of the range rings and the TCPA can be read off from the
vector length control.
True vectors
As an alternative, the observer may request that the true vector(s) be displayed. In this case, own
ship will also have a vector, which will increase in length as the time control is increased.
188

The likelihood of a close quarters situation developing can be ascertained by running out the
true vectors progressively to show the predicted development of the encounter.
The dynamic nature of this technique appeals to many users but it must be borne in mind that any
evaluation of CPA/ TCPA is a matter of trial and error and thus better avoided. It is essential to
appreciate that the CPA is not represented by the point at which the targets true vector intersects
own ships true vector, except in the case of zero CPA.

Trial Manouevre

The ARPA should be capable of simulating the effect on all tracked targets of an own ship
manoeuvre without interrupting the updating of target information.
With the availability of computer assistance, the problem of predicting the effect of a manoeuvre
prior to its implementation by own ship is much simplified.
While it is relatively easy to visualise mentally the outcome of a manoeuvre where two ships are
involved, in dense traffic this becomes very difficult. In particular, with large ships and limited
sea room, it is necessary to plan and update the whole collision avoidance strategy as quickly as
possible in light of the continually changing radar scene.
While planning, it is important to bear in mind the following points.
Own ship may temporarily need to be on a collision course with more distant vessels, while
evading nearer targets.
Extrapolation of the present situation using the trial manoeuvre facility with current course and
speed as inputs can provide valuable information on which of the other vessels in the vicinity
may have to manoeuvre in order to avoid collisions between each other.
Constraints imposed by navigation may dictate the manoeuvre of other vessels. This should be
taken into account when planning strategy and watched for when carrying out the plan and
assessing its effectiveness.
The ease with which this facility allows the navigator to establish the course to steer for a given
passing distance may encourage the choice of a small alteration. This temptation must be
avoided at all costs as it loses sight of the need to make a substantial alteration.
It is important to select relative vectors when assessing the effect of a manoeuvre as this will
give an indication of how far the target will pass clear. It is also possible to vary the inputs while
observing this display and note the effect on the CPA.
In order that there should be no confusion between the trial data and the current situation, when
trial is in operation the screen will display some distinctive indication such as the word SIM or
TRIAL or T.
The ARPA display
The continued availability of radar data in the event of an ARPA malfunction is mandatory.
The size of the display
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The size of the display on which ARPA information is presented should have an effective
display diameter of at least 340-mm.
This is equivalent to the normal 16-inch radius radial CRT whereas a raster-scan display requires
a 27-inch (690-mm) tube.
The range scales on which ARPA facilities should be available
The ARPA facilities should be available on at least the following range scales:
12 or 16 miles
3 or 4 miles
ARPA facilities are provided on all range scales from 1.5 n miles to 24 n miles inclusive.
The ARPA data brilliance control
Means should be provided to adjust independently the brilliance of the ARPA data, including
complete elimination of the ARPA data.
Unfortunately, many a mariner has been caught out by this control and has spent some frustrating
minutes trying to find the screen marker, only to realise that the ARPA data brilliance control
was turned down.
The effect of changing range scales
After changing range scales on which the ARPA facilities are available or re-setting the display,
full plotting information should be displayed within a period of time not exceeding four scans.
It should be appreciated that, in order to fulfil this requirement, the ARPA needs to track and plot
the acquired targets continually out to some 16 miles, irrespective of the range scale selected by
the operator. Because of this, if the shorter range scales are selected and accompanied by a short
pulse, targets at a longer range returning a poor response may be lost.
The display of alphanumeric data
At the request of the observer the following information should be immediately available from
the ARPA in alphanumeric form in regard to any tracked target.
Present range to the target.
Present bearing of the target.
Predicted target range at the closest point of approach (CPA).
Predicted time to CPA (TCPA).
Calculated true course of target.
Calculated true speed of target.

Although vectors are suppressed during the first minute of tracking, the observer can normally
select a target during that period and read out the alphanumeric data.
190

This is acceptable as a means of quickly obtaining the range and bearing of the target, but it must
be appreciated that other alphanumeric values will at that stage be based on only a few
observations and hence can be dangerously misleading.
When trial manoeuvre is selected, some systems continue to provide the real alphanumeric data
while others produce the trial values. In the case of any given ARPA, it is essential to establish
exactly which data are being made available.
Alarms and warnings
It should be possible to activate or de-activate the operational warnings.
Guard zone violation
The ARPA should have the capability to warn the observer with a visual and/or audible signal of
any distinguishable target, which closes to a range or transits a zone chosen by the observer.
The target causing the warning should be clearly indicated on the display.
It is possible to specify an area in the vicinity of own ship, which, if entered by a target, would
activate an alarm.
It is usual to have two zones, one, which may be at some pre-set range and the other at a range,
which may be varied according to, circumstances.
The target, which has activated the alarm, may be made to flash or alternatively be acquired.
It is important to remember that a target which is detected for the first time at a lesser range than
the guard ring will not activate the alarm.
This warning system should not be regarded as an alternative to keeping a proper lookout, but
rather as an additional means of ensuring the safety of the vessel.
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In the above, target D will be acquired by ARPA and will sound the alarm as it crosses the outer
zone.
Target A, if detected at its present position will be acquired once it crosses the inner zone and the
alarm will be activated.
However if target B is detected at its current position will not be acquired by the ARPA and
neither will there be any alarm.
Similar is the case with target C.
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Predicted CPA/TCPA violation
The ARPA should have the capability to warn the observer with a visual and/or audible signal of
any tracked target, which is predicted, to close to within a minimum range and time chosen by
the observer. The target causing the warning should be clearly indicated on the display.
It is possible to specify a CPA and TCPA (sometimes referred to as safe limits), which will
activate an alarm if both, are violated
Where own ships heading marker intersects a predicted area of danger (PAD), a warning will be
activated and will continue until such time as own ships course is altered to clear the PAD.
Lost target
The ARPA should clearly indicate if a tracked target is lost, other than out of range. Also the
targets last tracked position should be clearly indicated on the display.
Consider a target, which is being tracked but, for one of a number of reasons does not return a
detectable response on one scan: the tracker will open up the gate and, if it finds a response, will
continue to track. If it fails to find a response, it is required that the tracker should continue to
search for the echo in an area where it might be expected for up to five successive scans. If, after
this searching, the target is still not detected, the target lost warning is activated and the last
observed position of the echo is marked on the screen. It is also normal to activate an audible
alarm.
A double effect of target Lost with a target swop also may take place when a target is lost.
The gate having widened to search for the earlier target comes into contact with another separate
target either acquired earlier or acquired new. The target specification then would be of the new
target and not of the original lost target.
Performance tests and warnings
The ARPA should provide suitable warnings of ARPA malfunction to enable the observer to
monitor the proper operation of the system. Additionally, test programmes should be available
so that the overall performance of the ARPA can be assessed periodically against a known
solution.
Connections with other equipment
The ARPA should not degrade the performance of any equipment providing sensor inputs. The
connection of the ARPA to any other equipment should not degrade the performance of that
equipment.

Stabilization

Loss of sensor input
One occurrence, which will activate a warning, is the loss of sensor input such as arises if log or
gyro compass data is missing. It is important here to note that the ARPA has no way of knowing
what values to expect and so can only warn of their absence.
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(The warning log error means that the ARPA is receiving no input from the log, and not that
the value it is receiving is in error.)
Use Of Raster Scan Marine Radar Displays
The attention of Mariners is drawn to recent research which has highlighted the possibility of
misleading or erroneous displays occurring with Raster Scan Displays (RSD) that suffer from the
loss of certain input signals. These problems are said to occur in two areas; loss of video input
and loss of azimuth signal.
The research showed that in some cases loss of video input resulted in freezing of the picture, an
effect not noticed until the range is changed. The cause appears to be related to the fact that the
screen image is generated by a video processor and if the signal is lost, the display does not
redraw or refresh.
In other instances, the loss of azimuth signal led to rotation of targets or targets being depicted on
wrong bearings.
In many cases, the RSD did not display an alarm, or indicate in any way that there was a problem
with signal input.
Mariners should investigate the type of RSD fitted to determine the response of their system to
loss of input, particularly video and azimuth signals. If no warnings are displayed in these
circumstances, then procedures should be developed to periodically test the integrity of the
display.
Mariners should contact the manufacturer of the equipment for advice in detecting input failures
and guidance in developing test procedures.
The above is particularly important for operators of high speed craft; with the limited response
times on these craft meaning that early detection of system faults is imperative.
Further information can be obtained from the research paper, reprinted below from Focus, 12
July 1994 with permission of the Australian Maritime College. (Issued by AMSA)
Track change
This alarm quantifies departures from the predicted tracks of targets. The target(s) activating the
alarm will be indicated.
If all the targets generate the track change alarm then it becomes obvious that the alarms were
activated by large or rapid manoeuvres performed by own vessel. In general, this condition can
be recognised, as all targets will exhibit the track change symbol.
Anchor watch
This alarm is generated to offer automatic warning of own vessel or other vessels dragging in an
anchorage. If a known stationary target (for example, a small isolated navigation mark) is
acquired and designated as such then an alarm will be activated if the designated target moves
more than a preset distance from the marked position. If the stationary target appears to move,
then it must be due to the own vessel dragging her anchor.
Alternatively, it will also give a warning if another tracked vessel in the anchorage moves away
from the anchorage.
Tracks full
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Since there is a limit to the number of targets, which an ARPA is capable of tracking, in areas of
high traffic density, there may well come a time when all the tracking channels are in use. This
is particularly likely when automatic acquisition is in operation. An alarm will warn the operator
to inspect the untracked targets for potential dangers and to transfer tracking from less important
targets, which are being tracked to the potentially dangerous ones (not as yet tracked).
Wrong or invalid request
Where an operator feeds in incorrect data or data in an unacceptable form, e.g. course 370, an
alarm and indicator will be activated and will continue until the invalid data is deleted or
overwritten.
Time to maneuver
Where a delay facility is provided with trial manoeuvre, an alarm may be provided to alert the
observer, to the fact that, say, one minute until time to manoeuvre.
Safe limit vector suppression
This facility, if selected, suppresses the vectors of targets whose predicted motion does not
violate the safe limit and is an attempt to reduce ARP clutter.
The ARPA continues to track the target whose vectors are suppressed. If any of them should
manoeuvre in such a way as to violate the set safe limits, the vector of that target will reappear
and the safe limit alarm will be activated.
If a decision is taken to use this facility, be aware to switch off the facility before contemplating
a manoeuvre.
Trial alarm
This facility is the same as the safe limit alarm but operates only when the trial manoeuvre is
selected. It is not available on all systems.
Automatic ground-stabilization
An isolated land target (lighthouse with a Racon) with good response is selected as reference. It
is acquired and tracked by one of the ARPA tracking channels and then designated as a fixed
target. This makes it possible for the tracker to calculate the ground track of own vessel and
hence to maintain the movement of the electronic origin of the display in correlation to it.
When using this facility the observer should be particularly watchful for other targets, which
approach the reference target, and, in particular, for those which pass between the observing
vessel and the reference target. If the target moves too close to the echo ref. target chances of
target swop may be greatly increased.
In general the same stabilization is applied to the radar picture presentation and to the true
vectors, i.e. either both are sea-stabilized or both are ground-stabilized. Thus in general, where
automatic ground-stabilization is selected, true vectors will indicate the ground tracks of targets
and not their headings.
Failure to appreciate this can render the presentation dangerously misleading if it is mistakenly
used in the planning of collision avoidance strategy.
195

One might expect the danger of observers being misled in this respect to be less than in the case
of a raw radar display because, except in case of an along-track tide, there will be angular
displacement of own vessels vector from the heading marker.
The above makes it possible to have true-motion parallel indexing. It also makes it possible to
maintain electronic navigation lines and maps in a fixed position on the screen.
However, it must be stressed that the presentation may not afford traffic heading information and
may therefore in principle be unsuitable for collision avoidance.
Automatic ground-stabilization can also be achieved by using the output from a twin axis
Doppler log that is locked to the ground or feed from the GPS.
Sea Stabilized:
Whenever ARPA is used in the True track mode, data relating to own vessels motion is fed in
from the speed log and from the gyro/magnetic compass.
Assuming that the speed log is feeding in the vessels speed through the water and is not on the
bottom lock mode, then the displayed true track of the vessel would be sea stabilized.
Vectors would therefore indicate the true track through the water of other vessels as well and
thus would also the visual aspects of the other vessels, irrespective of ant tide/current
experienced.
IT IS THEREFORE VERY IMPORTANT THAT WHEN ARPA IS USED IN THE TRUE
TRACK ANTI COLLISION MODE, THAT IT IS ONLY USED IN THE SEA STABILIZED
MODE.
The above is the reason that in spite of a vessel being equipped with a GPS receiver, it is
compelled by regulation to carry an operational speed log. The ARPA has to have a feed from
the speed log.
Ground Stabilized:
Coastline drift may be prevented by feeding in the set and drift due to the current/tide, or by
having the feed come in from the speed log working on bottom lock condition. Or also by
incorporating the CMG obtained from the GPS.
Another way is to have the facility of echo reference lock on to a stationary target (selection of
the same requires utmost care, and is not recommended for the novice).
Under the above the display becomes ground stabilized. The displayed vector will then indicate
the targets true tracks. Of course due to the potentially misleading effect of the data relating to
the tracked vessels aspect, this mode should not be used when assessing collision risk or
planning avoidance strategy.
There are advantages of using either a True or a Relative motion display. Relative motion
displays and subsequent plotting gives an immediate indication of which ships are on a collision
course.
On the other hand, whether a target is stationary or moving can be usually distinguished more
readily with a true motion display.
196

Generally any one of the displays may be used, however with the inherent advantage for
collision avoidance, relative motion maybe more suitable for open sea condition for collision
avoidance.
Now regarding whether to use Ground stabilization or not.
Well ground stabilization display may and will give a misleading idea about a target/ship in
coastal areas, involving tidal currents.
GPS speed in general gives ground speed, and there lies the necessity of having a speed log,
which can give input to the Radar of the set and drift experienced by own vessel.
In the following example the same is highlighted:

The above is a case of an own vessel observing another target in an area where the current is a
factor. If ground stabilization is used, then the own vessel course is taken by the ARPA as 000
deg. And speed of 12k, however due to the current the actual vector of own vessel is Co. 018
deg. and spd. 12.5k.
Thus unless sea stabilisation is used, the plot will give a totally erroneous result and will seem
that the vessels are passing clear when actually they would be colliding.
This necessitates the use of a speed log as is mandatory under SOLAS.

PPC

Navigational lines and maps
197

This is a facility whereby electronic lines can be drawn on the screen. The position, length and
orientation of the lines can be adjusted, thus making it possible to produce parallel indexing lines
and to draw navigational limits in channels, traffic separation schemes, poor-response coastlines
etc. It is also possible to indicate points of interest such as isolated rocks and buoys with
symbols.
These allow the observer to prepare and store the pattern at a convenient time when passage
planning and subsequently to recall it when required. It is possible to move the map around the
screen in order to align it with displayed radar echoes. The facility is generally used in
association with automatic ground-stabilization.
The potential point of collision
The potential point of collision (PPC) is that point toward which own ship should steer at her
present speed (assuming that the target does not manoeuvre) in order for a collision to occur.
The reason for displaying the PPCs is that they assist in developing a collision avoidance
strategy by showing the observer, at a glance, the courses, which are completely unacceptable,
because they intersect a collision point.
They do not give any indication of miss distance (other than in the zero case) and any attempt to
extrapolate the clearing distance either side of the point is dangerous. A safe course is one
which, among other things, results in passing at a safe distance, which implies knowledge of
clearing distance.
Safe and effective use of PPC does depend upon a thorough understanding of the factors, which
affect their location and movement.
The concept of collision points
When two ships are in the same area of sea, it is always possible for them to collide. The
point(s) at which collision can occur may be defined and depends upon:
The speed ratio of the two ships,
The position of the two ships.
Considering any two ships, usually one is moving faster than the other; the possibility that one is
at exactly the same speed as the other and will maintain that ratio for any period of time is quite
unlikely, though it may also happen.
The ship which is the faster of the two will always see displayed one and only one collision
point, since it can pursue the target if necessary.
The ship, which is the slower of the two, may see displayed two collision points, both of which
must be on the target track.
One exists where the slow ship heads toward the target and intercepts it, while another exists
where the slow ship heads away from the target but is struck by it.
Alternately there may be no way for the slower ship to collide with the faster (even though the
faster may collide with the slower) because it is just not fast enough to reach the target
Note A critical in-between case of one collision point exists where the slow ship can just reach
the track of the fast ship.
198

It is important to realize that collision points exist, whether an actual collision threat exists or
not. The only significance is that in the event of an actual collision threat, the collision points are
the same for both ships.
The behaviour of the collision point when the target ships speed changes
If the speed ratio is infinitely large, e.g. when the target is stationary, then obviously the collision
point is at the position of the target. If the observing ship maintains speed while the target begins
to increase speed, the collision point will begin to move along the target track. When the target
speed has increased to that of the observing ship, the secondary collision point will appear at
infinity. Further increase of the target speed will move the primary and secondary collision
points toward each other (not necessarily by equal amounts); eventually, own speed in
comparison to target speed may be so slow that the two points will merge and then disappear.
The behaviour of the collision point when the target changes course
If the two ships have the same speed, the collision point moves on a locus, which is the
perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two ships. The greater the aspect, the farther away
the collision point will be. Theoretically, the limiting aspect in this case is 90, but then the
collision point would be at infinity and hence an aspect of some 85 plus is considered the
practical limit.
For a slower observing ship
When the observing ship is slower than the target, two collision points exist. And they are seen
to be on the circumference of a circle whose centre and radius are dependent of the speed ratio;
the circle is always on the observing ship side of the unity speed ratio locus. A limiting aspect
can be defined which is also dependent on the speed ratio. A slower own ship will mean that a
target will have a smaller limiting aspect angle.
Aspects greater than the limit pose no hazard since the observing ship can never catch up with
the target.
When the observing ship is the faster, the circle of collision points lies on the target side of the
equal-speed locus. As the aspect increases, the collision point moves farther away from the
observing ship. There is no limiting aspect and collision is always possible.
This is effectively a limiting course for the observing ship, if the actual heading is to the remote
side of this line, all collision points appear on the one bow. If own heading is inside this limiting
direction, the collision point will move across the heading marker as the target changes aspect.
Example:
Own Ship on course of 000 (T) and at a speed of 10 knots, observes as follows:
Time Bearing Range
0923 037 (T) 10.3 NM
0929 036(T) 8.5 NM
0935 034(T) 6.7 NM
Find the PPC.
199

2

1

If vessel alters course to port (O) then there would be collision at point P1.
And if she alters course more to port nearly same as that of the target then too there would be
collision at P2
How to draw:
Draw the normal plot. Extend the line WA to beyond the plot.
From centre C, draw a line to A and extend it beyond the plot.
Draw an arc centred on W, with radius as WO so as to cut the new line CA extended.
Name the points of intersection O and O.
Join WO and WO. These are the new course to steer for collision to occur.
Draw parallel line to WO and WO from C, so as to cut the extended line WA.
Measure off the Bearing and distance of points P1 and P2 from C.
These are the two PPCs.
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The predicted area of danger (PAD)
The shortcomings of collision points can be listed as follows:
Inaccuracies in data acquisition are likely to displace the points.
No account is taken of the dimensions of the ships involved.
They offer no quantitative indication of miss distance, which is the essential data required for
collision avoidance.
The logical development is to construct, around the PPC, a plane figure which is associated with
a chosen passing distance and in the calculation of which due margin of safety can be allowed
for the effects of data inaccuracies and the physical dimensions of the vessels involved.
The area within the figure is to be avoided to achieve at least the chosen passing distance and is
referred to as a predicted area of danger or PAD. It is essential that the user has a thorough
understanding of the principles underlying the presentation with particular reference to the
location, movement, shape and change of shape of the PAD. As will be seen from the following
explanation, this is not a simple subject.
In the case of the collision point there is a course which intercepts the targets track at the given
speed ratio, whereas in the predicted area of danger there are generally two intersection
points. One of these is where the observing ship will pass ahead of the target and the other
where the observing ship will pass astern of the target. The angle subtended by these two
limiting courses will depend upon:
The speed ratio.
The position of the target.
The aspect of the target.
As shown in the case of the collision point, a faster observing ship must always generate a single
cross-ahead and cross-astern position. A slower observing ship produces much more complex
possibilities and, depending on the three variables noted above, these might include:
Two cross ahead and two cross-astern points.
One cross ahead and two cross-astern points.
Two cross-astern points.
No hazard.
In the case of the single or primary collision point, the position at which the observing ship will
cross ahead of the target is always farther from the target than the collision point, while the
cross-astern point is always nearer to the target.
In the case of a slower observing ship, where there is a secondary collision point, the second
cross-ahead position is nearer to the target and the associated cross-astern position more remote
from it.
To indicate limits within the cross-ahead/cross astern arc, it is necessary to draw a bar parallel
to the targets track and at the intended miss-distance closer to the observing ships position.
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The limits defined by the arc and the bar are such that, if the observing ship were to cross those
limits, then it would be at a less distance than the desired miss-distance from the target.
The PAD in practice
In order to produce an acceptable system for practical operation, these limits are normally
encapsulated by a symmetrical figure such as an ellipse or a hexagon.
In the case of the ellipse, the major axis is equal to the difference between the cross-ahead and
cross-astern distances as measured from the target, while the minor axis is equal to twice the
intended miss-distance. In the case of the hexagon, it is drawn from a rectangle and two
isosceles triangles. The base of the triangle is always twice the miss-distance and the vertical
height is one quarter of the distance. It should be noted that the collision point is not necessarily
at the centre of either of the traditional figures.
In many cases the stylized figures do not follow the limits exactly, but any bias is on the safe
side.
Changes in the shape of the PAD
Due to the lack of symmetry in the geometry, which generates the area, the cross-ahead and
cross-astern positions do not move symmetrically about the collision point when the miss-
distance is changed. The cross ahead position usually moves more markedly than the cross-
astern position, showing the movement of the two collision points, where the primary movement
is much slower than the secondary. The overall result is an asymmetrical growth of the area with
the cross-ahead position moving rapidly away from the collision point.
The movement of the PAD
As in the case of the collision point, when a danger area is violated by the heading marker the
danger area will continue to move down the heading marker with the cross-ahead and cross-
astern points on opposite bows. The shape of the danger area may change but it will never move
off the heading marker. In the case of a slower ship, where either of the two predicted areas is
violated, the other will move in toward the target and eventually merge with the one on the
heading marker.
In the limiting case where the observing ships heading marker just touches the limit of either of
the predicted areas of danger, the limit will remain in contact with the heading marker, although
the shape of the area may change considerably.
In the non-collision case where the heading marker does not violate one of the danger areas, the
areas themselves will move across the screen, changing in shape and position. In the case of the
dual areas of danger, although the movement will generally be the same as that shown for the
dual collision points, a special case can arise when two danger areas may merge. This special
case indicates the possibility of two cross- astern positions existing but no cross-ahead
position. It is also possible that cross- astern positions may exist and an area of danger be drawn,
which does not embrace an actual collision point.
Special cases
In some cases, for example, an end on encounter, a cross-ahead and cross-astern position is not
valid. In this context it is necessary to consider a pass-to-port and pass-to-starboard as defining
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the limits of the miss distance. In the practical case, this results in the generation of a circle about
the targets position.

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