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- The document provides information about an individual's tutor, including their name, contact details, and address.
- It then outlines 7 learning outcomes for Topic 1 on problem solving, including defining what a problem is, describing the problem solving process, and comparing different approaches to problem solving.
- The summary highlights key aspects of problem solving like recognizing and defining problems, finding and selecting solutions, and implementing solutions. It also notes the importance of goal setting and using techniques like root cause analysis.
- The document provides information about an individual's tutor, including their name, contact details, and address.
- It then outlines 7 learning outcomes for Topic 1 on problem solving, including defining what a problem is, describing the problem solving process, and comparing different approaches to problem solving.
- The summary highlights key aspects of problem solving like recognizing and defining problems, finding and selecting solutions, and implementing solutions. It also notes the importance of goal setting and using techniques like root cause analysis.
- The document provides information about an individual's tutor, including their name, contact details, and address.
- It then outlines 7 learning outcomes for Topic 1 on problem solving, including defining what a problem is, describing the problem solving process, and comparing different approaches to problem solving.
- The summary highlights key aspects of problem solving like recognizing and defining problems, finding and selecting solutions, and implementing solutions. It also notes the importance of goal setting and using techniques like root cause analysis.
HP : 012 363 0459 Email : abdulhamid_tan@yahoo.co.uk naqibah@oum.edu.my Address : Jabatan Sains Sosial, IPG, Kampus Pendidikan Teknik, Kompleks Pendidikan Teknik, Bandar Enstek, 71760 Nilai Topic 1 -PROBLEM SOLVING LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.Define what a problem is;
2.Describe how a problem can present an opportunity for improvement;
3.Explain the four stages involved in the process of problem solving;
4.Explain the importance of goal setting in the problem-solving process;
5.Establish the general guidelines to effective problem solving;
6.Discuss the role of Root Cause Analysis (RCA) technique in the problem- solving process;
7.Examine the common constraints in the problem-solving process;
1.Compare and contrast the different approaches to problem solving. SUMMARY
A problem exists when there is a mismatch between what actually happens with what we want or expect to have happened. A problem can be defined as an opportunity for improvement. Problem solving is the process of obtaining a satisfactory solution, preferably in a novel way. Problem solving can be seen as a structured or directional. The stages in problem solving are: Recognising and defining a problem; Finding possible solutions; Selecting the best solution; and Implementing the solution. Defining a goal is essential in determining how much of a problem exists or whether or not there is a problem in the first place. It is vital to realise that goals change with time and so do the problems you face.
Whenever faced with a problem, an effective solution can be developed by following these steps: Problem Exploration; Goal Establishment; Idea Generation; Idea Selection; Implementation; and Evaluation or Follow Up. Root Cause Analysis (RCA) involves the following processes;
Defining the problem; Collection of data; Identification of possible causal factors or root causes; and Recommendation and implementation of solutions. Constraints faced in problem solving include lack of clarity, polItely, complexity and dynamics. Two basic approaches to solving problems can be tackling it at the source, or tackling its symptoms or effects. It is important to plan the solution
KEY TERMS Closed-ended problems
External Locus of Control
"Mop It" Approach
Open-ended problems
Problem-solving cycle
Root Cause Analysis (RCA)
"Stop It" Approach
SWOT Analysis
Thinking out of the box
Topic 2 Research on Thinking and Problem Solving Learning Outcomes :
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1.Describe the major antecedents of the science of psychology; 2.Explain the psychology of thinking; 3.Identify and describe the various concepts of problem solving; 4.Discuss the research carried out in problem solving and reasoning; and 5.Explain the transition to the new cognitive era.
John Locke Source: http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/lock.htm Edward L. Thorndike Source: http://www-distance.syr.edu/pvitaelt.html Kohlers most well-known work on chimp cognition was in the use of tools to gain access to food Source: http://wkprc.eva.mpg.de/english/files/wolfgang_koehler.htm Habitual and New Directions
SUMMARY
Associationism states that the world is represented within ourselves and our behaviour is guided by associations formed among these ideas. The mind is a set of faculties, powers, or computational capacities that operate on incoming sensations. William James described the human mind as an array of functions, and consciousness as a dynamic stream of inter-reacting events. Functionalism mainly focused on consciousness and elementism. Learning and problem solving are gradual processes based on the increasing strength of the connection between the stimulus situation and certain response possibilities. Behaviourism places behaviour or performance at the focus of attention, and made it the fundamental fact of psychology. Gestalt psychology believes that psychological experiences are anti- elementaristic or not made up of discrete representational elements, but rather an organised, dynamic field of events that interact or mutually affect one another.
Common-element concepts define concepts as the abstraction of elements common to a category of stimuli and the attachment of a single response to those elements. Trial and error is linked with the view that obtaining a solution is a gradual, undirected process that does not involve perception or comprehension of the problem requirements or structure. Functional fixedness refers to the fact that an object with a strong expected function cannot be observed as playing a different role. Syllogism is a conventional way of training and assessing reasoning. Deductive reasoning is concerned with syllogisms in which the conclusion follows logically from the premises. Inductive reasoning is the process where a simple observation is made and applied through generalisation to a totally different problem to make a decision. Transition to the new cognitive era included concepts such as hypothesis, strategy, heuristics, encoding, and retrieval, and was greatly affected by the emergence of computer technology.
KEY TERMS Associationism
Atmosphere effect
Behaviourism
Common elements
Content effects
Consciousness
Conservative focusing
Deductive reasoning
Elementism
Functional fixedness
Functionalism
Gestalt psychology
Inductive reasoning
Successive scanning
Syllogism
Trial and error
TOPIC 3 IDENTIFYING REASONS AND CONCLUSIONS LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.Determine if reasoning is present in an argument; 2.Identify words used in the language of reasoning; 3.Use the Thinking Map to analyze and evaluate arguments; 4.Apply tests to evaluate the validity and acceptability of claims; and 5.Identify assumptions and evaluate inferences in an argument
Six steps in evaluating the acceptability of a claim SUMMARY A case presented cannot be assessed in support of some belief or decision unless the individual is very clear on what the case is. One needs to identify and ascertain reasons and conclusions made in the case. The language of reasoning uses various types of words and phrases, known as conclusion indicators, that indicate a conclusion is being made by the particular claim. A thinking map used in the understanding and evaluating of a reasoning includes a list of important questions such as:
What are/is the main conclusion(s); What are the reasons and their structure; What is assumed; Clarifying what is required; Are the reasons acceptable or not; and What is the overall evaluation when the analysis of an argument is being carried out.
In the evaluation of acceptability of reasons, the important questions that need to be asked include:
Whether the reasons are acceptable or not; Does the reasoning support its conclusion(s); Are there other relevant considerations/arguments; and What is the overall evaluation.
The six steps involved in judging acceptability of a claim skillfully are:
How certain is the claim; Does the context of the claim influence its acceptability; Does the claim require the decision of an expert; Is the claim widely known or believed; How well does the claim fit with our other beliefs; and Is the claim made by a credible source.
In judging the credibility of a source skillfully, the main criteria that require close attention include the sources reputation for reliability:
Whether the source has a vested interest; Whether there is corroboration or validation of the claim from independent sources; Whether the source has the relevant expertise or training; The nature of the claim itself; and Whether the source can provide credible reasons for the claim they make. When we argue on a certain case, conclusions are inferred from the reasons. For an argument to succeed in justifying its conclusion its reasons must be true or otherwise acceptable and the inferences which are then drawn from those reasons must be good ones.
KEY TERMS Acceptability of claim
Acceptability of reasons
Credibility of sources
Deductive validity
Inferences
Reasoning
Thinking map Topic 4 Development of Problem Solving LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: Explain what is meant by strategic development in problem solving; Describe representational development in problem solving; Explain the use of external representations as tools for problem solving; Describe the role of language and planning in problem solving; Identify the various specialised representations employed in problem solving; Explain the role of interaction in problem solving; Describe the importance of self-monitoring in problem solving; and Compare and contrast problem-solving abilities between children and adolescents.
Significant Stage in Life for the Three Aspects in the Development of Problem Solving
Rovee-Collier's experiment Source: http://psycnet.apa.org The Tower of Hanoi Source: http://www.labspaces.net SUMMARY Problem-solving strategies can be defined as procedures that overcome obstacles and achieve goals. Most of the studies involving collaborative problem solving have not furnished children with feedback on the correct answers. The progress in problem solving among children after the first year arises from the improved ability to internally represent goals, actions, objects and events. The ability to solve problems improves as children become able to express themselves using language in various circumstances and events. Besides internal representations, toddlers also exhibit increasing ability to external representations as tools for solving problems. Mental model refers to the representation of a body of knowledge in long-term memory, which may have the same sort of structure as the models used in reasoning. Unlike the language, mental imagery and spatial representations that are acquired in the first two years of the childrens life, specialised representations are acquired much later in life. Maps are one important specialised and often used representation.
The main difference between school and real-world problems is the frequent difficulty in school in identifying what exactly the problem is. The ability of children in effectively regulating their thinking activities become increasingly central to their problem solving as they attain both increasing numbers of strategies and representational capacities. Language plays an important role in regulating thinking, communicating with others and directing the childs own problem solving. In solving their problems, children use conscious, explicit and metacognitive knowledge about the problem as well as available strategies and their own cognitive capacities. Effective planning requires the ability to formulate actions in advance, as well as skill at monitoring and modifying plans; as circumstances and goals require. Regulation of cognitive activities is often accomplished through interaction among people working together rather than through the efforts of a single individual. Skilled problem solvers usually practise self-monitoring activities including questioning and elaborating on their own knowledge; evaluating their degree of understanding; and thinking of counterexamples and possible generalisations.
KEY TERMS Feedback
Goal sketch hypothesis
Maps
Mental models
Planning
Problem solving
Reciprocal teaching
Representational development
Scaffolding
Self-directed speech
Self-monitoring
Strategic development Topic 5 Thinking Skills LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.Define thinking; 2.Explain the different thinking styles; 3.Distinguish key elements between a good and poor thinker; 4.Describe the importance of thinking; 5.Compare the two phases in the thinking process; and 6.Describe the functions and roles of the right and left brain.
"Rarely do we find men who willingly engage in hard, solid thinking. There is an almost universal quest for easy answers and half-baked solutions. Nothing pains some people more than having to think." (Martin Luther King)
The activity of the human's mind becomes thinking only when it is directed Source: http://www.sonic.net Albert Einstein Source: http://www.widelec.org/zdjecie,albert- einstein,2644,9.html The thinking process of the human mind has two distinct phases
Lists the various differences observed between good and poor thinkers. Characteristics of Good and Poor Thinkers Did you know...
Good thinkers are willing to think and may even find thinking enjoyable. They can carry out searches when necessary and suspend judgement. They value rationality, believing that thinking is useful for solving problems, reaching decisions, and making judgements. Poor thinkers, in contrast, need certainty, avoid thinking, must reach closure quickly, and rely too heavily on intuition. ( Adapted from Kjos, B.(1995) )
Right and left hemispheres of the human brain Source: http://creativitymeansbusiness.com/images/brain.gif
It is generally accepted that the dominant functions of the right hemisphere include imaginative and intuitive feature while the left hemisphere relates to organisational and analytical skills. Source: http://theswash.com/tag/monarchy/
SUMMARY Thinking is a purposeful mental activity over which we have power and control. Evidence shows that thinking can still be carried out in a sub-conscious and non-conscious state of mind. Several attempts have been made to describe the nature of thinking, and the most popular view that is currently regarded unimportant is that thinking is completely verbal. The importance of thinking is appreciated only when an individual faces situations in life which require them of skills such as analysing, solving problems and making correct decisions. The thinking process has two distinct phases; production and judgement.
Expertise in thinking requires the mastery of all approaches suitable to each phase and the skill to move back and forth between them. Overall, good thinkers have mastered how to face their frustrations whereas poor thinkers mourn their situation and allow failure to make them feel incapable and incompetent. Medical scientists believe that both sides of the brain could reason out a problem but by employing different strategies, one side may be the dominant one compared to the other. In solving a problem, the left brain uses the analytical approach whereas the right brain uses the holistic or global approach. Key Terms Cerebral
Communications technology
Corpus callosum
Creative thinking
Distinct phases
Factual knowledge
Good thinkers
Intuitive
Judgement phase
Knowledge explosions
Mental blocks
Neuroscientists
Non-conscious
Poor thinkers
Production phase
Reflex actions
Simultaneous processor
Sub-conscious
Successive processor Topic 6 Critical and Creative Thinking LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1.>Define critical thinking, creative thinking and lateral thinking; 2.Explain the characteristics of critical and creative thinking; 3.Give examples of critical and creative thinking respectively 4.Describe the barriers of critical thinking; 5.Identify the application of creative thinking in problem solving; 6.Describe the six techniques of lateral thinking; and 7.Describe right and left brain crossover.
Two basic thinking skills Barriers to Critical Thinking Lack of relevant background information Poor reading skills Bias Prejudice Superstition Self-centred thinking Group-centred thinking Peer pressure Conformism Provincialism Narrow-mindedness Close-mindedness Distrust in reason Relativistic thinking Stereotyping Unwarranted assumptions Scapegoating Rationalization Denial Wishful thinking Short-term thinking Selective perception Selective memory Overpowering emotions Self-deception Face-saving Fear of change Although critical thinking is important, many highly educated and intelligent people find it rather a challenge to practise. Below are some common barriers to critical thinking: Thinking involves thinking outside of the box which can be difficult at times Six Techniques in Lateral Thinking Lateral thinking may be useful when applied in the following: a.Challenging of a present situation in a positive manner to allow room for new ideas. b.Search and build on the concept behind an idea in order to generate more ideas. c.Resolve problems in methods that were not thought of initially. d.Utilize alternatives to produce and harness the creative energy of an organization. e.Transform problems into opportunities. f.Choose the optimum alternate ideas and put them into operation.
Alan Bean (a) and Florence Nightingale (b) both demonstrated strong right and left brain crossover attributes. Sources: http://www.talentbookingusa.com/speakers/alan-bean.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Nightingale SUMMARY Critical thinking is a general term given to a wide range of cognitive skills and intellectual characters required to effectively identify, analyze and evaluate arguments and truth claims; to uncover and overcome personal prejudices and biases; to devise and present convincing reasons in support of conclusions; and to come up with reasonable, intelligent decisions about what to believe and what to do. It is disciplined thinking controlled by clear intellectual benchmarks that have proven their values over the course of human history. The important characteristics of critical thinking are: clarity; precision; accuracy; relevance; consistency; logical; correctness; completeness; and fairness. Creative thinking is important in today's competitive world. Creative people share a number of important characteristics, among which are: dynamism; daringness; resourcefulness; diligence; and independence.
The most important ways to apply creativity to problems and issues are: taking an innovative approach; formulating a process or system; devising a new product or service; finding new uses for existing things; improvising on existing things; and inventing or redefining a concept. Lateral thinking employs the utilization of inspiration and imagination to solve problems by looking at them from unexpected perspectives; it also involves discarding the obvious, leaving behind traditional modes of thought, and throwing away preconceptions. The crossover of right and left brain produces a sound, rational and logical decision as both hemispheres of the brain are responsible for different functions and approaches in a decision making process. KEY TERMS Acquilescence